Collective Assessments

The educational psychologist carries out collective psychological assessments of the students, consisting of group administration of batteries of tests to measure a broad set of variables of psychological and academic development (for example, intelligence, aptitudes, learning strategies, personality traits, psychopathological symptoms, social behavior, group interactions, emotional intelligence, social-personal-family-school adaptation, interests, values…). These screening explorations are carried out at different times of schooling and aim to identify strengths and also individual and/or group problems.

Individual Diagnosis

The educational psychologist also carries out an individual diagnosis when the family or teachers demand it or problems were identified in previous collective evaluations. In individual diagnoses, the psychologist conducts initial interviews (with the student, their family, and/or the teaching staff or other professionals if necessary) to collect accurate information about the problems, areas of adaptive functioning, socio-family environment …. The psychologist administers psychometric tests and other evaluation techniques (observational ...) to measure in greater depth the variables selected according to the problems that emerged in the interviews (for example, intelligence, personality, psychopathology, social behavior, socio-family context …). They formulate a diagnosis, conclusions, and recommendations with all the information. Finally, they conduct diagnostic return interviews and counsel the student, family, and/or teacher if required. Both collective evaluations and individual diagnoses conclude with the preparation of psychological reports of the results obtained and intervention proposals for the difficulties identified.

Assessment Instruments

There are currently many assessment instruments for use in the school setting with children, adolescents and young people (see examples in Table 2).

To perform these functions, the educational psychologist must possess a comprehensive repository of assessment instruments and adequately master their application, correction, and interpretation procedures. This will help them to perform early detection and diagnosis. These instruments must have psychometric guarantees of reliability and validity; that is, they must be based on scientific evidence.

Therapeutic Intervention

This type of intervention addresses problematic situations that have already occurred, focusing on students with problems (emotional, behavioral, social, intellectual - learning/achievement, mental health ...), or on groups in conflictive situations (bullying, low self-esteem, divorce, school phobia...) that have been identified in previous diagnostic explorations. Concerning these students, the psychologist: (1) performs the corresponding individual, group, or family treatment (first-level treatments); that is, actions meeting the students' educational and psychological needs; or (2) depending on the nature and severity of the diagnosis, the intervention is referred to specialized centers, external professionals (health, clinical, forensic psychologists, other existing intervention social network services, such as addiction treatment centers, eating behavior problems ...), and the psychologist monitors these students' evolution, and coordinating the external services and the measures to be adopted in the school. In this context, there are empirically validated interventions for various child and adolescent problems. Psychological interventions have also shown their efficacy and clinical utility in various application areas, which are not limited only to health contexts or clinically diagnosed mental disorders according to the usual international classification systems (see ^{Fonseca-Pedrero et al., 2021}).

Psychoeducational Intervention

In general, psychoeducational interventions are based on programs. This involves selecting existing programs, implementing them, and evaluating their effects. The psychologist administers these programs or trains teachers to apply them, or contacts available organizations in the specialized services network to administer them. Three types of programs are differentiated within the psychoeducational intervention programs according to their objectives: preventive, developmental optimization, and academic-vocational-professional guidance.

Preventive programs address processes to avert the onset of problems in the different educational stages. For example, among other programs, to prevent: (1) school failure (a serious problem that currently affects 20% of secondary school students) or early school dropout (Spain has the second highest rate in the European Union), and/or to improve students' performance; (2) physical and psychological addictions (alcohol, drugs, internet, sex …); (3) violence (peer violence, gender violence, child-parent violence ...); (4) problems of adaptation to school entry; (5) teenage pregnancies; (6) anxiety; (7) depression, self-harm, suicide; (8) eating problems (anorexia, bulimia …); (9) the risks of social media and the Internet ... The objective of these programs is to intervene on risk factors to prevent the development of academic, emotional, and mental health problems.

Developmental optimization programs aim to promote various developmental factors during childhood and adolescence. For example, among others, programs to stimulate: (1) psychomotor development (psychomotor functions-development of the body and senses); (2) cognitive development (intelligence-attention, observation, memory, logical reasoning, cognitive problem-solving strategies; creativity; learning strategies; language …); (3) social development (social behaviors and competences such as communication skills, prosocial behaviors, peaceful conflict-resolution behaviors, the ability to identify and eliminate stereotypes and prejudices that provoke discriminatory behaviors, ethical-moral values and respect for human rights-dialogue, tolerance, freedom, solidarity, equality, justice, peace …); (4) affective-emotional development (emotional competencies such as the ability to identify emotions, understand the causes and consequences of emotions, regulate and adequately express emotions (e.g., anger, fear, sadness ...), activate positive emotions in oneself and others (e.g., joy ...), the capacity for empathy, understanding cognitively and affectively others' emotional states, self-concept-self-esteem, esteem of others …); and (5) the development of positive health habits (sleep, eating, physical exercise, sexuality, alcohol, drugs …).

Academic-vocational-professional guidance programs aim to facilitate vocational and career guidance. After evaluating the students to measure parameters associated with their academic-professional choice (intelligence, personality, study habits, academic performance, motivations, interests ...), the psychologist applies vocational development programs, training in study techniques (learning strategies) and improving academic performance. The psychologist also collaborates with the counselor or the teaching staff so that they can apply these programs.

Reporting the Results of Collective Evaluations and/or Individual Diagnoses

Usually, the psychologist first requests information from the teachers and then informs them of the students' individual and collective diagnostic results, with the due guarantees of their confidentiality. If teachers have information about the students' intellectual abilities, personality, and difficulties... they can help the students more effectively.

Advising and Collaborating in the Analysis of Situations, in the Teaching-Learning Processes, in Attention to Diversity

For example, the psychologist collaborates in the analysis of problematic school situations and their solutions (disruptive behaviors, demotivation, emotional alterations, problems of coexistence, behavior problems ...), in various topics related to the teaching function (understanding the teaching-learning processes, group dynamics and communication techniques, cooperative learning ...), in attention to diversity, because classrooms are currently very heterogeneous (immigrants, students with special educational needs, with high abilities ...) and the psychologist can collaborate with the teacher in attending to this diversity ...

Training Teachers by Organizing Training Courses and Conferences

For example, concerning intervention programs that will be implemented (to stimulate intelligence and creativity, improve coexistence ...), regarding the topics in which teachers express interest, or also training to develop teachers' skills for the early detection of students who are experiencing incipient mental health problems (observation indicators), which will allow early intervention measures to be implemented.

Emotionally Supporting Teachers to Promote Their Emotional Well-Being and Mental Health

It is important to provide a service to prevent and minimize teachers' problems such as burnout syndrome (generated by professional exhaustion and stress), the negative effects of Covid-19 ..., or other issues they may have. Teachers sometimes need help managing the pressures and complexities associated with their teaching roles and maintaining their own health and well-being. Caring for and psychologically supporting teachers is essential.

Research on Issues Related to Educational Psychology

Another function of the psychologist, although secondary, is to conduct research in collaboration with teachers and other researchers on various topics of Educational Psychology (the mental processes involved in learning, learning mediated by the use of new technologies, teacher behaviors favoring educational processes, bullying, drug use, the effects of the programs that are applied in the center ...).

Providing the Family With Diagnostic Information and Advising Them on how to Manage Problematic Situations

The psychologist first collects information from the parents (initial interviews) and then provides information (return interviews) about the results of the evaluations carried out on their children (individual and collective). Based on these data, they advise the family on how to manage problematic situations that family members may experience (loss of loved ones, divorce, school failure, anorexia, addictions, violence, sleep disorders, eating disorders, behavior disorders …).

Training Families to Optimize Their Children's Evolutionary Development and in Child and Youth Problems

For example, they organize conferences and debates on topics of interest to the parents (evolutionary characteristics at each stage of the life cycle, appropriate educational guidelines for children to learn to regulate their emotions and behavior, strategies to promote self-esteem, emotional intelligence... child and adolescent sexuality, communication techniques with children, addictions-drugs, internet ..., learning problems, mental health problems during childhood, adolescence, and youth …).

Intervening Therapeutically With the Family Group and/or Referring to External Professionals and Follow-up

The psychologist performs first-level therapeutic interventions with the family to help resolve conflicts that improve the homeostatic family balance (managing emotional and behavioral problems ...) but, depending on the severity of the situation, the treatment may be referred to external professionals (clinicians ...), and the psychologist will monitor the treatment and coordinate with the educational institution.

Bullying and Cyberbullying

This is a highly prevalent problem, existing in all schools. A recent study by the International NGO Bullying without Frontiers (2020-2021) concludes that in Spain, 7 out of 10 children suffer some bullying-cyberbullying behavior daily and that cases of bullying are increasing; Spain is heading the European list of cases (^{Informe mundial de la ONG Bullying sin Fronteras, 2022}). However, it should be noted that this 70% are not suffering severe victimization because recent studies and reviews (^{Feijóo et al., 2021}; ^{Garaigordobil, 2017}, ²⁰²⁰, ²⁰²²; ^{Garaigordobil & Larrain, 2020}) show a percentage of frequent victimization between 5-10%, and occasional victimization of approximately 40%.

Systematic reviews and recent studies of the consequences of bullying/cyberbullying (^{Aparisi et al., 2021}; ^{Consolação et al. 2022}; ^{Chen et al., 2020}; ^{Fajardo-Bullón et al., 2021}; ^{Fossum et al., 2021}; ^{Hamstra and Fitzgerald, 2022}; ^{Hong et al., 2022}; ^{Longobardi et al., 2022}; ^{Lucas-Molina et al., 2022}; ^{Maria Michael and Reyes, 2021}; ^{Moore et al., 2017}; ^{Pichel et al., 2022}; ^{Rivara and Le Menestrel, 2016}; ^{Rodríguez-Álvarez et al., 2021}; ^{Sidera et al., 2021}; ^{Thornberg et al., 2021}; ^{Urra, 2018}; ^{Wachs et al., 2020}; ^{Wang et al., 2020}) show its severe effects for all those involved. Although the most serious effects are suffered by the victims, aggressors are also at greater risk of suffering psychosocial maladjustment and psychopathological disorders in adolescence and adult life compared to students not involved in bullying situations.

Victimization through bullying/cyberbullying has become a major mental health problem. In the extreme, it can lead to suicide, but even when it does not have these fatal effects, it very often has serious consequences, as the victims develop many problems (^{Garaigordobil, 2022}): (1) Academic: Some have problems in academic performance, including school failure; (2) Emotional: They feel insecure, lonely, unhappy; it decreases their self-esteem, self-confidence; they feel guilt, shame, fear, and also anger, frustration, irritability, aggressiveness ...; (3) Psychosocial: They withdraw, isolate themselves socially, and some even develop a social phobia; (4) Physical: In face-to-face bullying, they show bruises and wounds, but sometimes severe physical injuries (paraplegia ...) or even death (cerebral edema ...) occur as a result of the beatings suffered; and (5) Psychopathological: They present psychosomatic problems, constant headaches, stomachaches, abdominal pain ... because the tensions they suffer are transformed into physical problems; post-traumatic stress, they relive over and over the aggressions and/or humiliations suffered; they present sleep disorders (insomnia, nightmares, enuresis, bruxism…); hyperactivity; eating disorders; behavioral problems; alcohol and drug use; dependence and/or addiction to technologies; intense anxiety, including panic attacks; depressive symptoms (moderate-severe depression); in many cases, they have suicidal ideation and every year, some of them commit suicide. In fact, bullying is one of the main reasons for child and adolescent suicide. These consequences, these symptoms, occur while the victims are suffering bullying, but in many cases, they also persist throughout life. Many adults come to psychologists' consultations for problems of anxiety, depression, social phobia ... who were bullied during childhood, adolescence, or youth.

Therefore, all the work of identifying, preventing, and intervening to eradicate bullying in schools will support emotional well-being and mental health. In this sense, schools need to implement detection-evaluation measures. We currently have many evaluation instruments, although not all are standardized with psychometric guarantees of reliability and validity. For example, the Peer Bullying Screening (^{Garaigordobil, 2013}, ²⁰¹⁷) identifies and evaluates face-to-face bullying (physical, verbal, social, and psychological aggressive behaviors) and 15 cyberbullying behaviors in students from 12 to 18 years old.

In addition to evaluating, we must implement prevention-intervention strategies in schools. We currently have numerous programs to prevent and eliminate bullying/cyberbullying, although not all are based on empirical evidence. An example is the Cyberprogram 2.0., an intervention program to prevent and reduce cyberbullying (^{Garaigordobil & Martínez-Valderrey, 2014}, ²⁰¹⁶), which has been experimentally validated, showing its effectiveness in reducing victimization and perpetration of bullying in all its forms, increasing empathy, the ability to solve problems cooperatively, self-esteem, and positive social behaviors. This program has the following objectives: (1) identify and conceptualize bullying/cyberbullying and the three roles involved; (2) analyze the consequences of bullying/cyberbullying for the victims, aggressors, and observers, enhancing empathy with victims and the ability to report these situations when they are discovered; and (3) develop coping strategies to prevent and reduce bullying/cyberbullying behaviors. More information on the subject can be found in ^{Garaigordobil (2020)}.

Depression in Childhood and Adolescence

Another problem that goes largely unnoticed at school and in the family is child and adolescent depression. Many studies warn about the high prevalence of depression at an early age, approximately 4% of students aged 8 to 12 years and 6.5% of adolescents. Although the onset of major depressive disorders usually occurs between 11-12 years, the onset of less severe depressive symptoms is observed as early as 7-8 years (^{Garaigordobil et al., 2023}).

Emotional disorders in childhood and adolescence affect cognitive, emotional, somatic, and behavioral development. They are usually associated with negative consequences such as poor academic performance, problems in family and social relationships, health problems, and suicide attempts, or completed suicide. We must not forget the risk of suicide that depression entails, which, according to the latest WHO report, is the leading cause of unnatural death between 10-24 years. Some studies (^{Garaigordobil et al., 2017}) have found positive relationships between childhood depression and school maladjustment, emotional and behavioral problems, problematic social behaviors, emotional reactivity, and childhood stress, as well as negative relationships with personal adjustment, self-concept, social skills, a sense of competence and affiliation. In addition, the continuity of depressive disorder in childhood and adolescence has been confirmed in adulthood. People who suffer from depressive symptoms at an early age are very likely to suffer from depression and other mental pathologies in adulthood.

These data emphasize the need to identify depressive symptoms early, and schools are an ideal context to detect these problems and intervene when the first symptoms appear. For this purpose, we have many evaluation instruments, for example, self-reports such as the CDS to evaluate childhood depression, the IDER to measure depression in adolescents/youth, the SENTIA scale to evaluate suicidal behavior in adolescents (^{Díez-Gómez et al., 2020}), or the SPECI to detect emotional and behavioral problems observed by the family and teachers.

In addition, these data suggest the need to implement preventive programs for emotional disorders in childhood and adolescence in the school and family settings. For this purpose, we have specific programs for the prevention of childhood and adolescent depression, validated experimentally, which include activities to cope with negative emotions and irrational thoughts ..., develop social skills, self-esteem, and resilience ..., learn coping strategies for problems, anxiety, depressive thoughts and feelings …).

An example of these programs is “Pozik Bizi-Vivir Feliz” (^{Bernarás et al., 2020}) to reduce depressive symptoms during childhood. The program has three objectives: (1) Improve relationships between group members and reduce social stress (enhance listening and empathy, learn to help each other, stimulate respect, analyze and resolve group conflicts…); (2) Identify, understand and regulate negative emotions and thoughts and enhance positive thinking (discriminate positive-negative thoughts, learn to regulate emotions, differentiate appropriate-inappropriate behaviors, identify behaviors related to depression-sadness, irritability, loss of interest in pleasant situations such as playing ..., physical symptoms, pain, weight loss, fatigue, concentration problems ..., and to examine situations that increase the risk of depression-problems with friends, academic problems, parents' depression, having suffered physical or psychological trauma…); and (3) Develop skills, decrease feelings of anxiety, increase self-esteem and self-confidence (discriminate and analyze anxiety situations and their consequences, learn relaxation skills, identify situations that increase-decrease self-esteem, provide strategies to cope with negative thoughts … (^{Garaigordobil, Bernarás et al., 2019}; ^{Garaigordobil, Jaureguizar et al., 2019}).

Another example of a program for children and adolescents is FRIENDS Resilience (^{Barrett & Turner, 2001}). It is used in schools and centers worldwide. This program is the only one approved by the WHO for its 15 years of comprehensive evaluation and practice. The program teaches social and emotional skills to prevent and reduce anxiety, depression, emotional distress, and social difficulties. It is a program created for children and their families, which teaches life skills and strategies to acquire resilience. Through dynamics and practical strategies, the program builds emotional resilience and strategies to cope with stress, worry, fear, and sadness. By learning these skills, students will be more prepared to cope with stress and, in turn, increase their self-esteem and mental health. The program includes content such as one's own and others' emotions, relaxation, trying to do one's best, planning steps, time to have fun together, skills with friends and family, being happy ... More information on the subject can be found in ^{Garaigordobil et al. (2023)}.