Cross-culturalism, diversity, and stereotypes at Disney

From its origins, the film industry has been a communication vehicle with the capacity to reach across generations through its stories, content, and values, as it is not only considered a form of entertainment but also a major contributor to popular culture (^{Martinez-Salanova-Sanchez, 2003}).

Disney has positioned itself as a leader in this industry, providing a wide range of content to entertain children's audiences (Zurcher et al., 2018). Its animated films continue to be highly influential communication format, contributing to the education of beliefs and values (^{Vizcaíno-Verdú et al., 2020}), given their ubiquitous nature and globally widespread consumption (^{Holcomb et al., 2015}). Thus, we should address how these media outputs can be influential in the development of children's identities (^{Van-Wormer et al., 2015}).

Many cultural minority families engage in co-watching audio-visual content targeted to children as a way to spend time together and learn about their ethnic identity, which is a common practice among Latino families in the United States (^{Walsh & Azmitia, 2022}; Zhao & Phillips, 2013). This allows them to connect with their culture of origin and construct narratives around their family identity (^{Walsh & Azmitia, 2022}). Throughout middle childhood, media socialization becomes particularly significant, notably for the development of children's ethnic identity, as they gradually develop a more complex understanding of concepts such as “race” and “ethnicity” and internalize cultural values and practices related to their self-identity (^{Derlan et al., 2016}).

Certainly, the “Princesses” epitomize prominent identity traits in Disney films (^{Tyner-Mullings, 2023}) and have evolved into cultural symbols over multiple generations, serving as idealized emblems of female childhood (Golden & Wallace, 2018). However, the company has been evolving its portrayal of female characters to align with societal shifts and contemporary trends (^{Sanchez-Gil, 2023}). ^{Perera-Santana and Bautista-García (2019}) contend that traditional princesses (e.g., Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel…), known for their beauty, kindness, naivety, delicacy, and submissiveness, have given rise to novel portrayals that diverge from heteronormative romanticization. Characters like Pocahontas, Mulan, Tiana, Moana, and Elsa, among others, exemplify a significant and progressive transformation of “femininity” (^{Muir, 2023}) in terms of personality, decision-making, and the ability to challenge conventional familial and social assumptions. Moreover, they exhibit increased diversity (no longer exclusively Caucasian); however, stereotypes related to their beauty, aesthetics, and exotic portrayal persist (^{Perera-Santana & Bautista-García, 2019}). Nonetheless, their racial and sociocultural diversity reflects the producer's commitment to fostering a more cross-cultural representational framework (^{Walsh & Azmitia, 2022}).

In contrast to the original “Disney princesses”, who awaited male rescue, contemporary female characters face challenges, demonstrate nonconformity, and cultivate their self-esteem, abandoning the marriage archetype in favor of exploring other facets of life (^{Averbach, 2003}; ^{Perera-Santana & Bautista-García, 2019}). Consequently, this transformation of female characters amplifies the prominence, diversity, and empowerment of women's roles in animated films (^{Neira-Piñeiro et al., 2021}).

Nonetheless, there is also evidence supporting the significance of classic tales originating from oral traditions, catering to both younger and older generations. By reinterpreting and reimagining characters and narratives within the framework of contemporary social and cultural contexts, these stories promote female empowerment (^{Pedreira & Ferreira-Boo, 2022}). Furthermore, in recent years, the company has demonstrated its dedication to producing live-action adaptations (films portraying characters and elements from Disney's original animated films in real-life settings) of Disney's timeless classics.

As per ^{García-Jiménez (2022}), the initial live-action films primarily consisted of remakes (adaptations or recreations) of their animated predecessors. Conversely, the films released since 2017 have strived to faithfully mirror the classic animated films in terms of both content and scenography, earning them the classification of “audio-visual retellings” tailored for children, adolescents, and adults alike. In this context, we can discern three methods for producing live-action films, notably influenced by economic and commercial considerations (García-Jiménez, 2022): (1) leveraging technology to meticulously replicate the original animation, making it readily recognizable to viewers, especially adults; (2) enlisting a typically renowned director to infuse the film with their distinctive cinematic style, adding elements of innovation; (3) incorporating new social values through the “(re)construction of certain characters” to modernize the classic film from ideological, moral, and educational standpoints.

Although the classic animated film The Little Mermaid was released in 1989, it has spawned a community of dedicated enthusiasts that continues to the present (^{Vermaak-Griessel, 2022}), and it has now been adapted into a live-action version, which premiered in May 2023. In this context, given that Disney films have shaped the aesthetic and ideological upbringing of various generations (^{Perera-Santana & Bautista-García, 2019}), this study delves into the viral reactions on TikTok as children encounter the teaser for Disney's live-action adaptation of The Little Mermaid. Consequently, the decision to cast Halle Bailey, an actress of African-American descent, as the lead in this new film adaptation, has ignited a substantial media discourse (^{BBC News, 2022}; ^{Meyerowitz, 2022}), sparking debates among audiences regarding issues of inclusion, race, and ethnic representation. In light of this ongoing discourse, it is worth highlighting that in earlier adaptations of the classic, the character Ursula, the story's antagonist, had previously been portrayed by a black actress -for instance, in the ABC series Once Upon a Time, specifically, by the American actress Merrin Dungey. However, this fact did not incite significant controversy or outrage at the time, as the fan community appeared to embrace this aspect of the character (^{Scott & Paprocki, 2023}).

This study also delves into the overall sentiments of TikTok users concerning the influence of this film adaptation, particularly concerning the central character of the narrative. This matter addresses a timely and substantial societal discourse, as it pertains to ethnic representation within entertainment media primarily aimed at a childish demographic but also inclusive of adult viewers. Consequently, it stimulates societal and cultural contemplation regarding a teaser that introduces noteworthy alterations in the portrayal of an iconic character, such as The Little Mermaid.

Sample

First sample: children's video-reactions

The study's sample comprises video-reactions from children, as shared by relatives of minors on TikTok, who are witnessing the teaser for the live-action adaptation of The Little Mermaid, released in September 2022, for the first time. These posts were specifically selected due to the media impact of this trend (^{BBC News, 2022}; ^{Meyerowitz, 2022}), which featured multiple instances of children reacting to Ariel's portrayal by Halle Bailey during that month.

Given their intricate nature, we categorized these videos through purposeful sampling and selection criteria (^{Palys, 2008}). This procedure facilitated the inclusion of significant posts, allowing us to examine the phenomenon from a child-centric perspective (RQ1), employing hashtag and trend-based searches (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Selection and exclusion criteria for video-reactions on TikTok 

In January 2023, we manually gathered 50 videos featuring reactions in both Spanish and English. Furthermore, to guarantee the privacy and confidentiality of the minors featured in these posts, we opted to anonymize their data during the subsequent analysis. This was achieved by assigning pseudonyms to their contributions and safeguarding the downloaded data (^{ERIC, 2023}).

Second sample: comments to video-reactions

To analyze the community sentiment surrounding these video-reactions, we gathered comments from the posts. To do so, we employed the web scraping technique, which involves the extensive extraction of data and information from a website or digital platform (^{Mitchell, 2018}). Notably, we utilized the Node Package Manager (NPM) as the unofficial TikTok API manager within the JavaScript framework Node.js 20. In March 2023, we input the IDs of each video into the system, amassing a total of 13,301 comments.

Upon reviewing the compilation, we identified comments that did not contribute to the corresponding methodology (quantitative-qualitative sentiment analysis). We excluded comments that included: (1) exclusive codes (emoji) and illegible spelling; (2) exclusive mentions of other users (tags with @). The final sample consisted of 11,510 comments (accessible at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22674814). To process the data, we fully translated comments identified in English, French, Spanish, Greek, Japanese, Russian, Thai, and Vietnamese into English using the TextBlob library with the Python programming language.

First technique: inductive codification

To comprehend the influence of the teaser on children, particularly their response to the alteration in the appearance of the main character, we employed an inductive content analysis. This approach entails the interpretation of data derived from a unit of analysis (in this instance, video-reactions). The review and examination of these reactions aid in grasping the nuances of meanings, issues, and interactions (^{Vears & Gillam, 2022}) via a methodical coding process (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Inductive coding process in Atlas.ti 23 

The procedure entailed the identification of patterns within the video-reactions, specifically regarding the physical description of Ariel. Subsequently, we defined categories to characterize these patterns, consolidating the physical description into a category labeled “diversity and inclusion”. This categorization was prompted by the inclusive discourse observed among the children when they identified themselves represented on the screen. These categories served as a foundation for establishing conceptual themes that facilitated the subsequent findings. Notably, in this case, the children appeared to endorse cross-cultural equality and tolerance. We conducted the data analysis encompassing codes, categories, concepts, and insights into children's reactions using the content analysis software Atlas.ti 23.

Second technique: sentiment analysis, coding, and statistical testing

The substantial volume of comments earmarked for analysis required a system to streamline the extraction of collective sentiment regarding the Halle Bailey as Ariel controversy. In this instance, we utilized the TextBlob library via a Python script within the PyCharm development environment to conduct a “sentiment analysis”. This Big Data technique, encompassing computational science, computational linguistics, data mining, psychology, and sociology, aids in broadly discerning the emotional tenor of a group's sentiments (expressed through linguistic means) via natural language processing. It thereby indicates the polarity, signifying the level of positivity and negativity within a text (^{Taboada, 2016}). To delve deeper into the overall sentiment analysis, we automated the coding of the 11,510 comments using the AI Coding system (artificial intelligence coding), leveraging the Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT) model developed by OpenAI within the Atlas.ti 23 software. Subsequently, we interpreted the resulting codes through the application of chi-square and Cramer's V statistical tests using SPSS v.25.

RQ1: Children's reactions to the “real” Ariel

After analyzing the video-reactions of the children to the teaser, we identified four categories (“diversity and inclusion”, “emotions”, “prejudice”, and “racial/ethnic identity”) and their corresponding codes (10 in total). These categories helped us address the first research question, concerning how children respond to the alteration in the appearance of a classic Disney princess.

Diversity and inclusion: growth descriptions, equality, and tolerance

In the first category, we observed up to three codes based on the physical reactions and responses of the children. The most frequent one pertained to Ariel's “physical description”, discovered at the end of the teaser. As shown in Figure 3, the children raised minimal concerns about the mermaid's appearance (eye color, chest shells, or the absence of complementary characters like her “fish” -Flounder).

Figure 3. Descriptions of Ariel in the video-reactions 

Others praised her appearance, describing Ariel as “pretty”, “cute”, or “beautiful”. Additionally, some were impressed by what appeared to be the “real Ariel”, i.e., the transformation of an animated character into a physical entity seemed to elicit their satisfaction and delight (they did not anticipate that the red-haired, Caucasian Ariel would have this ostensibly authentic appearance).

The remaining codes (“inclusion and equality”, and “tolerance”) alluded to the possibility of Ariel having Afro-descendant features. By considering minor_12's argument, we can discern that the selection of Halle Bailey implies a significant step forward in terms of inclusion and equality in cinematic representation. Any individual, regardless of their background, can aspire to portray any character within the film industry.

Disney's live-action adaptations manifest a clear intent to incorporate and convey new values that are attuned to contemporary society, particularly concerning feminism, sexual orientation, and, in this instance, ethnicity (^{García-Jiménez, 2022}; ^{Muir, 2023}). Consequently, the selection of this actress serves as an indication that strides are being taken towards a more inclusive and intercultural society.

Conversely, minor_07 highlights that the actress's physical appearance does not hinder her ability to portray her favorite princess. This demonstrates that character interpretation relies not solely on physical appearance but also on acting aptitude.

Emotions: jumping for joy and acceptance

Emotional expression constitutes a foundational component of human behavior, and its presentation can differ based on the individual and the context (^{Lorenzo-de-Reizábal, 2022}). In the course of Ariel's introduction in the teaser, children conveyed their emotions through both physical and verbal means. Laughter, screams, tears, jumps, and applause served as tangible indicators of a genuine and unscripted reaction.

Some children fervently expressed their joy by running into the arms of their family members and shedding tears of happiness (minor_09). Others vocally exclaimed their fascination with the mermaid, describing her as “incredible”, “black”, or expressing surprise at her appearance on television (minor_22, minor_24, minor_26). Some conveyed their approval of an unexpected physical appearance (minor_03, minor_09, minor_22, minor_35, minor_39), while a few even expressed their frustration due to the seemingly endless wait for its release in theaters (minor_04, minor_05) (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Emotions expressed in the video-reactions 

The display of diverse emotions created a favorable context around Bailey's portrayal of Ariel. Thus, the depiction of diversity in widely consumed cultural contexts like the film industry, particularly those targeting children, appears to evoke profound, genuine, and respectful emotional reactions.

Prejudice: children do not judge

The commentary offered by minor_41, who is 9 years old, regarding social biases related to physical appearance, held significant importance, particularly concerning the portrayal of diversity in the film industry. Although most of the minors appeared or declared themselves to be under 4 years old (due to the overprinted texts or the comments of their relatives), minor_41 showed an outstanding capacity for reflection and analysis.

In their comment, minor_41 de-emphasized physical appearance and highlighted the importance of valuing diversity. This perspective showcases an open and respectful stance towards diversity, which is particularly vital in a context marked by enduring biases and stereotypes about physical appearance (Figure 5). Additionally, minor_41 referenced the actress's skin complexion to illustrate that other “Disney princesses” (Mulan, Pocahontas, Tiana, Moana…) hail from different origins, thereby promoting new ways of comprehending the world. This observation underscores the entertainment industry's capacity and influence in shaping the perceptions of its young audience (^{Perera-Santana & Bautista-García, 2019}; ^{Van-Wormer & Juby, 2015}).

Figure 5. Reflection on racial and ethnic prejudice in video-reactions 

The prejudices, misconceptions, and controversies concerning the portrayal of Ariel in the live-action adaptation were associated with the realm of diversity and inclusion (embracing equality and tolerance). These issues highlight the imperative to nurture the well-being of all individuals, irrespective of their racial, ethnic, socio-educational, economic, or cultural backgrounds.

Identities and representativeness: “She looks like me!”

In concluding RQ1, it is noteworthy that children, particularly those of Latino or Afro-descendant heritage, expressed positive emotions when they could relate to and find representation in a historically Caucasian Disney character. The category of “racial/ethnic identity” and, specifically, “identity affirmation”, emerged as a recurrent theme in the analyzed discourse of the children (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Children's self-image and self-esteem in video-reactions 

The surprise and joy displayed by the children demonstrated their empathic ability to identify with others and underscored the significance of representation in these media settings. The incorporation of diverse characters appears to play a role in shaping a society that enables young audiences to witness the appreciation and respect of their experiences and cultures (^{Walsh & Azmitia, 2022}). The evident positive influence on the perception of cross-cultural diversity, self-image, and self-esteem motivates an inclusive children's culture that celebrates the diversity and coexistence of identities.

RQ2: Community sentiments under debate

To address the second research question (RQ2), which sought to comprehend the collective sentiment within the community participating in the children's video-reactions, we conducted sentiment analysis on the 11,510 comments. We utilized a machine learning system that reads, identifies, and categorizes comments within a sentiment range of -1 (highly negative), 0 (neutral), and 1 (highly positive) to calculate the overall mean.

The overall community sentiment, as determined by artificial intelligence, yielded an average score of .28. In other words, users generally exhibited a notably positive sentiment towards the children's genuine, cross-cultural, and tolerant reaction to Ariel. To specify further, we gathered 8.7% of negative messages (n = 1,005), 28.7% of neutral messages (n = 3,303), and 62.6% of positive messages (n = 7,202).

To delve deeper into the discussion, we employed automatic coding through Atlas.ti 23 AI, refining a set of 8 categorical codes: admiration, self-esteem, discrimination, diversity and representation, empathy, empowerment, cultural identity, and racism and stereotypes. Subsequently, we subjected this data to co-occurrence testing in order to identify relationships between the codes, followed by a comprehensive analysis using chi-square and Cramer's V test in SPSS v.25.

Admiration for cultural identity and the media representation of diversity

Admiration is an emotion that manifests through the capacity to recognize and esteem the qualities, virtues, and accomplishments of an individual or entity. In cinema, it emerges “when the character and the spectator share the same cultural context in which these attributes are valued” (^{Aertsen, 2017}, p. 113). This emotion particularly stood out in the comments associated with cultural identity, diversity and representation, and empathy.

Utilizing the chi-square statistical test to examine the co-occurring Atlas.ti 23 codes (hereinafter referred to as variables), and commencing with admiration and cultural identity, we identified χ²(11,510) = 8,333.062; p < .001, Cramer's V = .851. In this initial instance, we rejected the null hypothesis, discerning a highly significant association among the comments that expressed admiration for cultural identity.

Regarding admiration and diversity and representation, we calculated that χ²(11,510) = 8,195.586; p < .001, Cramer's V = .844. Once more, we discerned a highly significant correlation between these two variables. Similarly, in the case of admiration and empathy, the test revealed a notably strong and significant association (χ²(11,510) = 4,392.747; p < .001, Cramer's V = .618).

This data revealed that amidst the moderate positivity evident in the comments, users expressed admiration for the concepts of cultural identity, diversity, and media representation, all while displaying a strong sense of empathy towards the children's reactions (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Comments of admiration and empathy for diversity and media representation 

Similarly, we pinpointed the most prevalent terms among the three dependent variables, emphasizing concepts such as “precious”, “girl”, “black”, or “love” (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Bigrams of the variable “admiration” with “cultural identity”, “diversity”, and “empathy” 

Diversity, inclusion, and cross-cultural empowerment promoting children's self-esteem

Diversity and cross-cultural inclusion pertain to the appreciation and acceptance of diverse cultural and ethnic identities (^{Aguado-Odina, 2004}), as well as the promotion of equitable opportunities and societal participation (^{Newsinger & Eikhof, 2020}), regardless of cultural disparities.

In this context, both the variables of diversity and representation, as well as those of cultural identity and empowerment, exhibited direct correlations with self-esteem, defined as the psychological construct encompassing an individual's self-evaluation and perception (^{Reina et al., 2010}) across various aspects of their life (physical appearance, social skills, competencies…).

We identified a significant and moderate relationship between self-esteem and diversity and representation (χ²(11,510) = 1,782.221; p < .001, Cramer's V = .393). In other words, according to users, Afro-descendant media representation in a Disney feature film appears to have a notable impact on children's self-esteem. Furthermore, we observed a significantly moderate relationship between self-esteem and cultural identity (χ²(11,510) = 1,978.638; p < .001, Cramer's V = .415), highlighting the importance of ethnic recognition in the process of valuing the child's self and us concept.

Lastly, the findings concerning self-esteem and empowerment (χ²(11,510) = 1,190.442; p < .001, Cramer's V = .322) suggest a significantly moderate relationship between self-esteem and child empowerment. In other words, the comments suggest that media representation of diverse cultural identities, including Afro-descendant representation, may influence children's self-esteem (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Diversity, representation, cultural identity, and children's self-esteem 

Racism, stereotypes, and discrimination against cross-cultural diversity

Within the 1,005 negative messages, we examined the connections between the variables of discrimination (defined in social terms as the practice of treating an individual or group unfairly or unfavorably based on attributes such as race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, disability, etc.) and their associations with racism, stereotypes, and cultural identity.

To begin, we observed a significant and robust relationship between discrimination and racism and stereotypes (χ²(11,510) = 9,864.857; p < .001, Cramer's V = .926). This suggests that discriminatory comments may be closely associated with issues related to racism or stereotyping. Similarly, when examining the connection between discrimination and cultural identity, we found χ²(11,510) = 1,375.917; p< .001, Cramer's V = .346. While this data reveals a moderately significant relationship, the discussions around discrimination did not pertain to the cultural identity of the children or the main character in the film.

Notably, the comments took a particular approach in which, despite their defensive responses aimed at safeguarding their integrity in response to the message (in many cases explicitly stating that they were “not racist” or had “no intention to offend”), they adopted a confrontational and critical tone regarding what they perceived as a lack of genuine diversity or a sense of “forced inclusion”.

The comments contended that the issue revolves less around cross-cultural diversity or media representation of ethnicity among the children's audience and more around adhering to the standards previously established by Disney. This perspective is attributed to the heteronormative and historical trajectory of the company (Anjirbag, 2018; ^{Monleón, 2018}). In their view, if Ariel was originally portrayed as Caucasian and red-haired, there would be no apparent reason or logic to alter this aspect.

Figure 10. Discrimination, racism, and stereotypes about Ariel 

In this regard, the comments incited a debate surrounding two hypothetical scenarios: What would happen if Ariel's change had been reversed? Or what would occur if Disney produced a live-action version of Tiana with a Caucasian actress? (Figure 10).