INTRODUCTION
Food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG) are important tools that help the population to properly choose food to stay healthy and prevent chronic diseases1-2. To make them easier to understand, they are usually accompanied by an image or a representative graphic of the main contents that serve as a summary and exemplification, help consumers’ understanding, and is one of the main communication and dissemination tools for the general public1-2.
FBDG should promote diets appropriate to the nutritional and energy needs of a specific population according to food availability, consumption patterns and economic conditions and lifestyles3-4. In this sense, they should be specifically designed, differing in terms of graphics and messages, using the most suitable tool for dissemination and understanding5. Different technical studies have reviewed and compared the food guides of several countries, showing particular messages of sociological, cultural and religious aspects of each country and common healthy premises as the need to consume fruits and vegetables, the restriction of salt and alcohol intake, the enough water intake and the weight control, as well as on lifestyle especially regarding the practice of enough physical exercise6-8.
In the development of a FBDG, it is important to identify the relationship between diet and health, the country-specific diet-related problems and the food consumption patterns, and to decide how transform this information into short and clear messages, easily remembered and culturally acceptable9. It could be necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of other guidelines and to recompile the communication strategies of other countries. According to vegetarian dietary guidelines, some FBDG have been developed and adapted to different populations but a comparative analysis of their pictorial representations has not been carried out to find out which are the common messages to all of them. This comparison of FBDG is necessary as a starting point to design a new guide for this specific population in Spain.
In this work eleven food-based vegetarian dietary guidelines were collected and their pictorial representations, food groupings, and associated messages of healthy eating and behavior were compared, along with visual aspects as the type and number of icons, its position and the presence of hyperlinks. Analyzing the communicative aspects of the FBDG, and more generally any nutritional communication material, is essential to improve their effectiveness.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
In the first place, it was necessary to conduct a bibliographic review to select the existing healthy eating dietary guidelines for the vegetarian population worldwide. A database and web search were carried out in the English and Spanish languages, in order to identify international vegetarian and vegan FBDG provided with a pictorial representation.
Selection criteria
The first selection criterion referred to the authority: the most authoritative sources in each country were chosen, at first, through the FAO FBDG webpage10, as done in the comparative studies of the food guides of Painter et al.6 and FAO7. The search was expanded to PubMed, Medline, Scielo and Google Scholar, using as keywords (with and without quotation marks), “vegetarian food guide/guidelines”, “vegan food guide/guidelines”, “vegetarian food pyramid”, “vegan food pyramid”, “vegetarian food plate” and “vegan food plate”.
In some countries, the vegetarian alternative is included in the FBDG for the general population. While their pictorial representations have the great advantage of normalizing the vegetarian diet as a healthy alternative to the omnivore diet for the general population, they are not included in this comparison since they do not consider the possible deficiencies of some nutrients (essential amino acids, vitamin B12, calcium or vitamin D).
The second selection criterion referred to the target audience: only the pictorial representation aimed at the final user, with the use of icons being a tool to simplify their interpretation, were selected.
Data evaluation
The comparison methodology used was based on the comparative study of the FBDG pictorial representations of Painter et al.6: food guides illustrations were compared according to the food categorization and quantitative recommendations for each food group and included the FBDG pictorial representation format because the figure efficiently transmits the message of proportions to be consumed and the pyramid is one of the easiest icons to understand11. The figure of the plate/circle, adopted recently in different countries, has been added to this iconic representation, as well as the atypical shelf figure of the Association Végétarienne de France12.
The comparison included also the type of message used, as defined in the FAO Latin America and the Caribbean’s FBDG comparative study7:
Textual messages with dietetic, nutritional and lifestyle recommendations.
Visual message (food icons part of the FBDG graphic representations), whose purpose is to facilitate the communication.
Thus, the analyzed messages have been those used to transmit the recommendations for each food group (number of daily servings and quantity in each one to maintain an optimal health, use of household measures) and the type of message used related to cultural elements and lifestyles (aspects related to nutrition, anthropology, agriculture or sociology). It was considered convenient to incorporate to this methodology the study of the presence of messages on sustainability, on specific nutritional recommendations as supplementation (given the need to ensure an adequate intake of some key nutrients, such as vitamins D and B12) or grouping of foods according to their quantitative importance in the diet (bases of the pyramids), or function (rich in calcium) and other elements related to communication (use of photography or drawing, number of icons, presence of hyperlinks).
RESULTS
In the first selection, none of the listed FBDG had a vegetarian pictorial representation. The expanded search gave as a result the identification of five pictorial representations: Loma Linda University Vegetarian Food Pyramid13, Arizona University Vegetarian Food Pyramid14, California Department of Health Care Services Vegetarian Food Pyramid15, Japanese Vegetarian Food Pyramid16, Justus Liebig University of Giessen Die Gießener vegetarische Lebensmittelpyramide17. Afterwards, the search list led us to identify seven more pictures: the Unión Vegetariana Española Pirámide de la alimentación vegetariana18, the Oldways Vegetarian and Vegan Diet Pyramid19, the ProVeg (vegan German association) Vegane Ernährungspyramide20, the Vegetarian Resource Group My Vegan Plate21, the Becoming vegan The Vegan Plate22 and the Association Végétarienne de France Pyramide alimentaire végétale12.
The selected data come from countries that provide the vegetarian population with healthy eating FBDG accompanied by illustrations (see Additional Materials [AM] http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599).
Geographic distribution and authorship of the illustrations analyzed
Most of the analyzed pictorial representations of vegetarian FBDG are from the United States (six out of eleven: Additional Materials [AM 1-6] http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599), two are German (Additional Materials [AM 7, 8] http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599) and the others come from France (Additional Materials [AM 9] http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599), Spain (Additional Materials [AM 10] http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599) and Japan (Additional Materials [AM 11] http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599).
These FBDG and their pictorial representations have been prepared by official institutions, universities, associations of dietitians/nutritionists or vegan and vegetarian associations endorsed by dietitians/nutritionists. Almost all the illustrations analyzed belong to vegetarian associations (five out of eleven) and universities (three out of eleven), and only in one case to a government agency.
Vegetarian food guide illustration shapes and target audiences
The illustrations have been analyzed according to their format: pyramids in http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 2-8, 10 and 11]; plates in http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 1 and 6]; and shelves in http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 9]. Vegans are the target population in http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 1, 6, 8-10].
There are two other groups: graphics for vegans with ovo-lacto vegetarian (OLV) options in the top of the pyramid (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 2-4, 7]), and graphics for OLV in which the vegan option is presented separately and/or accompanied by messages related to the supplementation of B12 and other nutrients (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 5]). This type of graphics could cover the needs of different types of vegetarian eating patterns: ovo-lacto vegetarian (OLV), ovo vegetarian, lacto vegetarian and vegan, thus avoiding the need to include more than one illustration in the food dietary guides.
Food grouping and type of food messages
As shown in Table 1, the OLV illustrations classified foods into seven to nine groups, and most of the vegan graphics, in five or six groups. Almost all OLV illustrations classify eggs, beans and nuts in the same group, as “protein food”, whereas vegan graphics separate beans and soy derivatives from nuts and seeds. Three of the vegan illustrations put calcium-rich foods (green leaves, oranges, fortified foods, soy derivatives, etc.) in a separated group.
Food grouping | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spain 18 | France 12 | US Becoming Vegan 22 | US Oldways 19 | Germany Justus Liebig University 17 | Japan 16 | US Loma Linda University 15 | US California Department of Health Care Services 15 | US Arizona University 14 | Germany Proveg 20 | US Vegetarian Resource Group 21 | |
Vegetables | x | x | x | x (a) | x | x (b) | x | x | x (c) | x | x |
Fruits | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (d) | x | x | |
Grains and derivatives | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
Protein food | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Eggs | x | x | x | ||||||||
Dairy and analogs | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||
Discretionary calories | x (e) | x | x | x | x (f) | ||||||
Vegetables oils | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | ||
Salt / condiments | x | x | x (g) | ||||||||
Nuts and seeds | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||
Beans / soy derivatives | x | x | x | x | |||||||
Calcium-rich foods | x | x | x | ||||||||
TOTAL FOOD GROUPS | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 9 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 5 |
(a): In the same group with fruits; (b): And algae; (c): Separated in general vegetables and leafy green vegetables; (d): And dried fruits; (e): Sweets and wine; (f): Idem; (g): Miso, salt, soy sauce.
Potatoes are placed in different food groups: vegetables (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 2, 3, 11]) or with cereals (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 8-10]) and are not present in five out of eleven pictorial representations (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 1, 4-7]).
The textual messages referring to food groups were also analyzed (Table 2). As expected, the messages are aimed at a daily consumption of vegetables (vegetables, fruits), cereals, pulses and nuts. Other very frequent messages are those referring to daily consumption of eggs and dairy products or their analogs (enriched vegetable drinks), as well as to the consumption of healthy fats and water. Most of the illustrations recommend the consumption of whole grains (eight out of eleven). Only one illustration does not include written messages.
Textual and visual food groups recommendations | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spain 18 | France 12 | US Becoming Vegan 22 | US Oldways 19 | Germany Justus Liebig University 17 | Japan 16 | US Loma Linda University 13 | US California Department of Health Care Services 15 | US Arizona University 14 | Germany Proveg 20 | US Vegetarian Resource Group 21 | |
Eat vegetables | x | x | x | x | x | x (a) | x | x | x | x (b) | x |
Eat fruits | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (b) | x |
Eat grains | x | x | x (b) | ||||||||
Eat whole grains | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (b) | x | ||
Eat potatoes/tubers | x | x | x | x (b) | |||||||
Eat beans, soy and derivatives | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (b) | x |
Eat nuts and seeds | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (b) | |
Eat eggs | x | x | x | x | |||||||
Eat dairy | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||
Eat dairy analogs | x | x | x (b) | x | |||||||
Eat calcium-rich foods | x | x | x | ||||||||
Eat healthy fats | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (b) | ||
Drink water | x | x | x | x | x | x | x (b) | ||||
TOTAL | 8 | 8 | 6 | 9 | 10 | 8 | 9 | 8 | 10 | 10 | 6 |
(a): And algae;(b): Only in visual format (icons).
The basis of diet
In most of the analyzed illustrations that accompany the vegetarian FBDG, vegetables and fruits are in the bottom of the pyramid or occupy the largest section of the plates (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 1, 2, 6-9, 11]).
Four pictorial representations place cereals and derivatives in the basis (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 3-5, 10]). Beans, soy and derivatives are placed in the same level of cereals, at the bottom, in the Loma Linda University’s vegetarian pyramid (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 3]); in the Spanish vegan pyramid vegetables, fruits, cereals and other tubers occupy that place (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 10]).
The discretionary foods messages
As shown in the Table 3, five of the 11 analyzed illustrations offer messages about discretionary foods using text or/and icons -such as ultra-processed products, foods rich in simple sugars, fats and/or sodium- and about alcoholic beverages. It is worth noting the text next to the French illustration (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 9]) that recommends limiting also processed vegan imitations of meat and cheese.
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spain 18 | France 12 | US Becoming Vegan 22 | US Oldways 19 | Germany Justus Liebig University 17 | Japan 16 | US Loma Linda University 13 | US California Department of Health Care Services 15 | US Arizona University 14 | Germany Proveg 20 | US Vegetarian Resource Group 21 |
CONTENT OF VISUAL (V) OR TEXTUAL (T) MESSAGES ABOUT DISCRETIONARY FOODS | ||||||||||
Sugar and sugared food, alcohol, salt, processed food as meat and cheese analogues (t) | Foods rich in refined sugars (desserts and sweets), sodium-rich foods/salty snacks and alcohol (wine) (t, v) | Foods rich in refined sugars (sugar and cookies), sodium-rich seasonings and fats (t, v) | Foods rich in refined sugars (sweets) (t, v) | Foods rich in refined sugars (desserts and (sweets) (t, v) | Foods rich in refined sugars and alcohol (wine) (v) | |||||
POSITION OF DISCRETIONARY FOODS IN THE ILLUSTRATION | ||||||||||
Out of the illustration | Top of the pyramid | Top of the pyramid | Top of the pyramid | Minor proportion of the pyramid |
(t): textual message; (v): visual message (icons).
Specific nutrients and supplementation
As mentioned above, it has been deemed appropriate to incorporate in this analysis the presence of recommendations about specific nutrients, including the supplementation of vitamins D, B12, and the consumption of iodized salt. The messages on vitamin B12 supplementation, extremely important for vegans, are present in 6 of 11 graphics, as shown in Table 4. In the same Table, other food messages have been analyzed, including privileging skimmed dairy products, reducing salt, using herbs and spices to add flavor and consuming teas and infusions.
Text and visual messages about nutrients, foods and supplementation | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spain 18 | France 12 | US Becoming Vegan 22 | US Oldways 19 | Germany Justus Liebig University 17 | Japan 16 | US Loma Linda University 13 | US California Department of Health Care Services 15 | US Arizona University 14 | Germany Proveg 20 | US Vegetarian Resource Group 21 | |
Privileging skimmed dairy products | x (t) | ||||||||||
Reducing salt intake | x (t) | ||||||||||
Using herbs and spices | x (t, v) | ||||||||||
Consuming teas and infusions | x (t, v) | x (v) | |||||||||
Consuming iron-rich products daily (pulses and soy derivatives) | x (t) | ||||||||||
Consuming products rich in Omega-3 fatty acids | x (t) | x (t, v) | |||||||||
Supplementing with calcium | x (t) | ||||||||||
Exposing to the sunlight or supplementing with vit. D | x (t, v) | x (t, v) | x (t) | x (t) | |||||||
Supplementing with B12 | x (t, v) | x (t) | x (t. v) | x (t) | x (t) | x (t) | |||||
Using iodized salt | x (t, v) | x (t, v) | x (t) | ||||||||
TOTAL | 2 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 3 |
(t): textual message; (v): visual message (icons).
Quantitative recommendations
The information about frequency and amounts of foods that should be eaten is not always available. Only a few graphics include textual messages indicating the specific quantities of foods servings (Table 5).
Textual messages about quantity and frequency of consumption | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spain 18 | France 12 | US Becoming Vegan 22 | US Oldways 19 | Germany Justus Liebig University 17 | Japan 16 | US Loma Linda University 13 | US California Department of Health Care Services 15 | US Arizona University 14 | Germany Proveg 20 | US Vegetarian Resource Group 21 | |
TEXTUAL MESSAGES THAT INDICATE EXACT QUANTITIES | |||||||||||
Drinking water | x | x | |||||||||
Exposure to sunlight | x | ||||||||||
Vitamin B12 supplementation | x | ||||||||||
Vitamin D supplementation | x | ||||||||||
Calcium supplementation | x | ||||||||||
Vegetables, fruit, nuts, dairy and/or equivalents, eggs, healthy fat intake | x | x | x | x | |||||||
Fat, sugar and salt intake | x | ||||||||||
TEXTUAL MESSAGES THAT INDICATE MODERATION (DISCRETIONARY FOODS) | |||||||||||
Saturated fats | x | ||||||||||
Sugar and sugary foods | x | x | x | x | |||||||
Alcohol | x | x | |||||||||
TEXTUAL MESSAGES THAT INDICATE EXACT FREQUENCIES | |||||||||||
Water intake | x | x | |||||||||
Vegetables, fruit, nuts, dairy products and/or equivalents, eggs, healthy fat intake | x | x | x | x | x | x | |||||
Fat, sugars and salt intake | x |
Lifestyle and sustainability
Regarding the messages related to lifestyle, only 4 graphics of 11 recommend doing physical activity (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 2, 3, 5 and 8]). Only one recommendation about sustainability has been found in two of the analyzed graphics (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 8 and 10]): consuming tap water. http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 2] recommends cooking/eating with family or friends.
Number of messages
According to the information gathered, the analyzed graphics have a wide range of nutritional messages, from 9 (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 6]) to 14 (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 5 and 8]), excluding those referring to portions and frequency of consumption. Some illustrations have explanatory texts or bulleted lists outside the main design, with a small font size: these texts have been included in the analysis, if integrated into the graphics. The reported number of total messages is obtained from Table 2, 3 and 4.
Number and types of icons
Most of the analyzed graphics are composed of many icons (from <30 to >45) in drawing (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 1-5, 8-10]) or photography (http://www.renhyd.org/index.php/renhyd/article/view/953/599 [AM 6, 7 and 11]) format that allows transmitting the wide variety of products included in the dietary pattern. Occasionally, they could generate confusion, especially if the illustrations are reproduced in small formats or with low resolution or if it is positioned within the pyramidal form. This is the case of food groups that share the same position; this can lead to a misinterpretation of the recommended daily consumption for each of them.
DISCUSSION
Although the recommendations on the consumption of cereals, vegetables, fruit, pulses and nuts are present in all the pictorial representations of the selected vegetarian food guides, this analysis evidences a series of differences in the composition and position of these food groups and in the dissemination of other information.
Several differences exist, the major ones with food grouping, position, number and type of other food messages. This reflects different approaches to communicating choices within some foods. For example, pulses are placed as part of protein food (with nuts, seeds and in OLV guides with eggs) in seven illustrations and are represented as a separated group in four.
Potatoes are placed with vegetables or with cereals and their icon does not appear in five out of eleven pictorial representations. In fact, potatoes have a high glycemic load23 and, over the long term, diets high in potatoes and similarly rapidly-digested, high carbohydrate foods can contribute to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease24.
Regarding other messages, privileging skimmed dairy products is a message included only in one illustration and is a recommendation that recent scientific research has belittled25-26.
Regarding sustainability, vegetarian (and especially vegan) eating patterns are the most sustainable, since they eliminate or reduce the consumption of foods whose production needs more natural resources and causes greater greenhouse gases emissions27-32. In fact, according to Food and Agriculture Organization, all dietary guidelines should provide guidance for those who wish to adopt vegetarian or vegan diets in order to have a real positive impact on the environment29. Vegetarian diets already contribute to the latter, but it can be useful for the vegetarian population to receive other recommendations on sustainability. Some of them are: reducing the consumption of highly processed foods; drink tap water; reducing food waste and managing it sustainably; using efficient cooking methods; knowing the impact on the environment of the production of eggs and dairy products (for OLV); avoiding unnecessary packaging.
It is striking that only 4 graphics of 11 recommend doing physical activity, no one give messages about its exact quantity of time. Most international guidelines recommend a goal of 150 min/week of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity, but marked health benefits are observed with relatively minor volumes of physical activity and people might benefit from simply becoming more active33.
Regarding the presence of specific nutrients and supplementation it’s important noting that in Spain, the deficit of iodine is not exclusively linked to the vegetarian food pattern, since the intake of this mineral is deficient among the general population34. On the other hand, the use of herbs and spices as a strategy to reduce salt intake is especially important in the Spanish context, since the daily salt consumption of Spanish population exceed the recommended amount35. Only 6 out of the 11 analyzed graphics include the recommendation to supplement with vitamin B12, which is very important not only for the vegan population, but also for OLV36.
Most of the illustrations analyzed do not indicate exact quantities or frequencies of servings; the complexity of quantitative messages lies in the difficulty of the population to understand the concept of ration. Regarding this, Carlos and colleagues suggest including photos of real food portions in the guides37 while Marques-Lopes and associates propose to use household measures38.
Five of the 11 analyzed illustrations offer messages about discretionary foods and place them at the tip of the pyramids. This depiction usefully transmits the little presence that these foods should have within a healthy diet, but its positioning above other foods, at the pinnacle of the graphics, could lead to misunderstandings39.
Moreover, messages and/or icons about foods high in saturated fat, added sugars, salt, and/or alcohol) are often accompanied by terms such as “moderate consumption” or “occasional consumption”: these types of messages are probably ambiguous and are not easily interpreted by the population40. In this sense, a recent publication included a simple criterion for incorporating occasionally foods into a national dietary guideline, adapted to the Spanish population41.
To facilitate the food guides’ dissemination strategy, as a general recommendation these should not include more than ten messages9,42, however most of the analyzed pictorial representations (7 out of 11) exceed this recommendation, reaching up to fourteen messages and more than 45 icons in most of the analyzed graphics.
Although most of the analyzed graphics are available on webpages, none of them has hypertext or hyperlinks. The analogical graphic format requires the creation of very brief messages and the inclusion of very different foods, at a nutritional level, in the same frequency group of consumption. The application of the composite approach is a strength because it allows us to compare the eleven graphics using the same standard, or measure. Strength of this analysis is that also the aspects strictly related to visual communication, such as the type and number of icons and the format of the graphics, have been analyzed.
Nonetheless, it is not a comprehensive comparison and, since the subject is constantly evolving, this comparative analysis will need future updates: it is plausible that new vegetarian FBDG accompanied by pictorial representations will be published worldwide in the near future.
CONCLUSIONS
The findings reported will be of interest for the creation of a pictorial representation of a FBDG for Spanish vegetarians. It would be useful to formulate more accurate messages (short texts and/or icons or photos) that indicate the frequency and exact amount of food that should be consumed. These texts and icons should be easily understandable for the population and include the servings in grams and in easily quantifiable domestic measures. Messages about sun exposure, consumption of iodized salt, foods rich in calcium or omega-3, and vitamin B12 supplementation should also be accompanied by recommendations on the exact quantities and frequencies. The evidence base for optimal diets continues to evolve towards plant-based diets. However, these dietary patterns are not exempt from suffering imbalances and require transmitting clear messages to the population. Further analysis of this type of guides provides direction for future research in vegetarian diets and communication science. Regarding the link between sustainability and diet, the future configuration of the FBDG (vegetarians or not) should reflect the evidence in nutrition sciences, but also consider the consequences of food production on the economy, the environment, climate and the society as a whole, in the different countries. Likewise, digital communication tools in the nutritional field can offer many opportunities to promote interactivity, to facilitate the understanding and to increase the dissemination of the messages. The use of hypertexts, hyperlinks and pop-up windows could be useful to integrate more information in the web version of the food guides, avoiding the use of an excessive number of icons, offering the user a personalized and entertaining navigation. Further analysis of these aspects would shed new light on the development of FBDG and, more in general, of any nutritional communication tools.