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Introduction
From primary school through the secondary education years, the study of the processes involved in learning has become fundamental in the educational process to show students to think critically and to act autonomously. There are many factors involved in the learning process, among them the cognitive and motivational aspects that are considered central elements and which allow teachers to use the necessary strategies to achieve better academic outcomes and greater participation of their students in the learning process (Núñez & León, 2016; Yang, 2012).
The learning context is determined by many factors including the educational and institutional environment, the perception of importance and usefulness of the contents, and the students’ interaction with the colleagues and with the teacher. The success of the study method used are closely linked to the cognitive and motivational factors that shape each student, since there is a relation between motivation and the learning approach adopted (Vermote et al., 2020).
Teachers assume an important mediational role in the learning process in accordance with how they present and structure course content and in relation to the design and structure of learning opportunities that they provide for their students (Marsh et al., 2012). The learning environment created by the teacher can determine the student's participation and the way in which they approach learning tasks. Therefore, the methodology used in the teaching process can meaningfully influence student learning (Jang et al., 2016).
In higher education, appropriate pedagogical approaches can stimulate student autonomy, increase their motivation to learn and engagement in the learning process, and enable them to take initiative in their own learning processes in relation to their anticipated profession.
In creating a positive classroom environment, it is essential that teachers provide an attainable goal through a consideration of the individual capacities of each student (Cheon & Reeve, 2015). A non-controlling teaching style that allows for autonomous student motivation will be particularly important in contributing to these desired outcomes. Intrinsic motivation to learn in students will be apparent when they approach learning with the desire and willingness to learn new content without expecting any reward (Taylor et al., 2014). Intrinsically motivated students put more effort into accomplishing schoolwork, display greater persistence, and employ a greater number of learning strategies than do students whose approach to learning is less intrinsically motivated.
Intrinsic motivation can be strengthened by a teaching style that supports student autonomy and the provision of teacher autonomy has additional positive consequences in satisfying students’ psychological needs (Froment, et al., 2023; Núñez & León, 2015) and autonomy-supportive style has been associated with positive outcomes for students including enabling greater autonomy and persistence in the learning process (Sparks et al., 2015; Van den Berghe et al., 2016).
Self-Determination Theory (SDT,Ryan & Deci, 2017) has been widely used in recent years as a theory that considers different motivational perspectives, contextual influences, and interpersonal perceptions that can influence whether students are voluntarily and autonomously engaged in the learning process or not. The motivational model proposes a continuum of self-determination in which a person may be more or less self-determined to perform a task. In self-determination theory (SDT) intrinsic motivation involves engaging for the reward of the activity itself, rather than for outcomes external to the activity, and extrinsic motivation is observed when actions are regulated by external factors, rewards or pressures (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
Within this theory, autonomy is essential to intrinsic motivation to learn allowing students to energize their classroom engagement and learning (Cheon et al., 2016; Patall et al., 2018; Ryan & Deci, 2017). Autonomy refers to feelings of self-governance and acting for oneself and on one’s own accord (Niemiec et al., 2010) but without feeling the necessity to be dependent on other people in the process (Vansteenkiste et al., 2004). In order to satisfy student’s, it is essential that teaching behaviors contribute to students’ intrinsic motivation through the use of non-controlling and informative language and being willing to accept student perspectives. It is important to provide challenging activities that involve student's individual interests and allow them to identify some of their own learning opportunities and to determine some of the goals and desired outcomes in the learning process (Reeve et al., 2008).
Motivation to learn is a topic of interest in scientific literature because of its effect on school performance (Leroy & Bressoux, 2016) and its effects on the learning process itself (Núñez & León, 2016; Roth et al., 2007; Stoeber et al., 2011). The self-regulated learning model (Zimmerman et al., 2017), is also an object of study, as it argues that effective teaching is that which creates a teaching-learning environment that encourages students to engage in their own learning. The Theory of Self- vs External-Regulation Behavior (de la Fuente et al., 2020; de la Fuente, Pachón-Basallo, et al., 2022) has integrated the variables of achievement emotions and of academic engagement and proposed different types of relations among levels of variables in personal self-regulation and regulatory teaching to predict the meta-cognitive, meta-motivational and -emotional variables of learning, and of Academic Achievement in Higher Education (de la Fuente et al., 2017). In recent years, many studies have emerged trying to understand relevant considerations that affect student motivation to learn in relation to their perceptions of autonomy and certain teaching pedagogical behaviors.
An increasing number of studies now show that teaching autonomy-supportive relates to improved student learning. However, few studies have been conducted in the higher education context that have directly examined the relation between classroom contextual factors, such as teacher emphasis on the usefulness of course content, and student motivational characteristics (Ruiz-Alfonso & León, 2017) and no studies have been found that consider different populations, in this case Iberian and Ibero-American university students, with these variables. Recently, the SDT has recognized after two decades of research the need to conduct new studies focused on the study of the generality (versus variability) of the effects of different need satisfactions across different cultural and demographic contexts (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). Some of the reasons for this strong revival come from the great advances and trends of contemporary research on the variables involved in people's motivational processes, generating new research questions that allow us to advance in a deeper understanding of the aspects involved from new extensions to basics relations already known. This study was designed with the intention of addressing this topic and also had the purpose of conducting an international examination with a sample of university students similar language countries, from Iberian and Ibero-American nationalities (Spain, Portugal, Chile, Mexico and Brazil).
The aim of this study was to examine how the teachers’ extent of emphasis on the usefulness of their course content contributes to our understanding of student autonomy and, in turn, student motivation to learn. So, this international focus can contribute to the generalizability of findings in relation to the conceptual models of interest.
In this regard, the hypothesis is that the teacher's emphasis on the usefulness of class content predict the student autonomy. In turn, student autonomy predicts student motivation to learn.
Method
Sample
The sample was comprised of a total of 3,033 (2,051 female and 982 male), university students, ranged in age from 17 to 63 years (M = 21.51 yrs., SD = 3.71 yrs.), enrolled from 1st to 4th grade of Sciences of the Physical Activity and Sport, from different universities in Spain (N = 602), Portugal (N = 469), Mexico (N = 1177), Chile (N = 372), and Brazil (N = 413). A non-probability sampling technique was used for convenience (Morrison, 2011). It was a disproportionate stratified sampling where the target population (university students) was defined, the identified the stratification variable (Physical Activity and Sports Sciences) and the number of strata to be used (1st-4th grade) was determined.
Measures
Teacher emphasis on the usefulness of class content. In order to determine the perception of students about the extent to which teachers emphasized the usefulness and interest of their class content, we used the items from the selected dimension of scale that designed to assess teaching quality (Leon et al., 2017). Following (Muñiz et al., 2013) the translation of the scale was carried out through a reverse translation of the items of the questionnaire, transcribed by an independent translator. This dimension consists of nine items (e.g., "My teacher discusses various topics when doing class work") preceded by the phrase, "In the subject..." and students respond to a five-point Likert-scale ranging from “1” (strongly disagree) to “5” (strongly agree). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha value of .96 was obtained as an index of the intrascale reliability for the items on this scale.
Autonomy. The Scale of Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction (Échelle de Satisfacción des Besoins Psychologiques) (León et al., 2011) was used in this research and was designed for use in the educational context. Following (Muñiz et al., 2013) the translation of the scale was carried out through a reverse translation of the items of the questionnaire, transcribed by an independent translator. For this work, only the dimension of autonomy was assessed. Five items on the scale were preceded by the statement, "In my class..." and the instrument assessed feelings of student autonomy (e.g., "I feel free to make my decisions"). The responses were provided in relation to a Likert-scale format ranging from “1” (totally disagree) to “5” (totally agree). The internal consistency of this instrument as expressed by Cronbach’s alpha value was .88
Motivation to learn. To measure student motivation, the intrinsic motivation subscale (Alonso et al., 2005) of Vallerand and colleagues’ Scale of Motivation in Education (Vallerand et al., 1989) was used. Following (Muñiz et al., 2013) the translation of the scale was carried out through a reverse translation of the items of the questionnaire, transcribed by an independent translator. This instrument includes four items (e.g., "For the pleasure I feel in expanding my knowledge on topics that interest me") and each item is preceded by the phrase, "Why do you study?"). Responses are provided on a Likert-scale format with response opportunities ranging from “1” (strongly disagree) to “7” (strongly agree). A Cronbach’s alpha value of .84 was obtained for the instrument’s internal reliability in the present study.
Procedure
The research was approved by the Ethics Committee (registration number: 191007203011) and carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki of 1964 and its subsequent amendments. All the questionnaires were adapted to the language of the country (Spanish or Portuguese), the adjustment was even differentiated within the Portuguese language of the same (Portugal or Brazil).
Administrators and relevant faculty from the participating universities were contacted by means of a letter explaining the objectives of the research and how it was to be carried out with the inclusion of informed consent forms and the actual instrument to be distributed.
The questionnaires were sent either through Google Docs Questionnaires or in paper format for those sites that were more immediately accessible to the researchers. All of the participants were informed of the objectives of the study and of their rights as participants, including the protection of their confidentiality, protection of their responses and their voluntary participation. Students needed approximately ten minutes to complete the instrument.
Data analysis
Hypothesis testing was conducted through a multilevel structural equation model. At the group and individual levels, the teacher emphasis on the usefulness of class content was hypothesized to predict motivation to learn via student autonomy. To gather evidence of the indirect effect of student autonomy we compared the proposed model (full indirect) with a nested model (partial mediated) where teacher emphasis on the usefulness of class content also predicted motivation to learn (Morin et al., 2014). If the proposed model fits as well as the nested model (less parsimonious), we would gather evidence of the indirect effect of autonomy on the relation between teacher emphasis on class content usefulness and student autonomy. In order to estimate the confidence interval of the indirect effect we used the delta method (Hayes, 2018). With regard to the estimation method, we used weighted least square mean and variance adjusted method (WLSMV), because this approach does not require data to be continuous.
To test if the proposed model was similar across the samples from the different countries, we performed a multiple group analysis (Pendergast et al., 2017). Specifically, we tested four nested models with the following specifications: 1) free loadings, thresholds, factor means and regressions between factors across countries; 2) fixed loadings and thresholds, but different factor means and regressions between factors across countries; 3) fixed loadings, thresholds, and factor means, but different regressions between factors across countries; and 4) fixed loadings, thresholds, factors means, and regressions between factors across countries. If a more parsimonious model (i.e, Model 2 vs. Model 1), did not provide a poorer fit, it can be concluded that the parameters (i.e, loadings and thresholds) were not different across countries. It is important to note that Mplus does not allow for the test of a multiple group analysis with a multilevel structure using WLS estimators. Therefore, we performed a multiple group comparison in a single level structure. All analyses were performed with Mplus 8.4 (Muthén & Muthén, 2019).
Descriptive Analysis
As Table 1 shows, motivation to learn was the variable with the highest mean and highest variability, while autonomy showed greater similarity within the same class (ICC = .12). The strongest relation between variables was between teacher emphasis on class contents and autonomy (r = .34).
Multilevel Structural Equation Model
Overall, the proposed model provided an adequate fit to the data: χ2 (3032, 128) = 3,187 (p < .001) as expressed by the various fit indices, RMSEA = .08; SRMRwithin = .06; SRMRbetween = .08; and CFI = .95. At the group level, the strength of teacher emphasis on class content predicted student autonomy (β = .46; SE = .09; p < .001), and student autonomy predicted student motivation to learn (β = .31; SE = .10; p < .01). At the individual level, the variable of teacher emphasis on class content predicted student autonomy (β = .66; SE = .01; p < .001), and student autonomy predicted student motivation to learn (β = .35; SE = .01; p < .001). These relations are presented in Figure 1.
Indirect Effects
The examination of the fit of the nested model where we added an additional path from teacher emphasis on the usefulness of class contents to motivation to learn did not provide a better fit to the data: χ2 (3032, 126) = 3745.94 (p < .001), RMSEA = .10, SRMRwithin = .05, SRMRbetween = .09, and CFI = .95. In addition, the added parameter at the group level showed a low value (β = .02; SE = .16; p = .89), while at the individual level it was β = .07; SE = .02; p < .001). In the proposed model, the indirect effect of autonomy in the relation between teacher emphasis on class contents and motivation to learn at the group level was β = .11; SE = .05; p = .05. While, at the individual level it was β = .04; SE = .01; p < .01.
Multiple Group Analysis
Model comparison did not reveal substantial improvement relative to the more parsimonious model. As can be seen in Table 2, only a small improvement was detected when comparing a model with fixed loadings and a threshold versus a model with factor means was similar across countries. These findings suggested a similar model across countries.
Table 2. χ² test and fit indexes for multiple countries comparisons.
Note.Model 1: Free loadings, thresholds, factor means and relation. Model 2: Fixed loadings and thresholds. Model 3: Fixed loadings, thresholds and factor means. Model 4: Fixed loadings, thresholds, factor means and regres sions between factors.
Discussion
This study was designed to test a multilevel (group and individual levels) model about the relation between the extent of teachers’ emphasis on the usefulness of class content with student autonomy, and, in turn, on motivation to learn. Our findings extend previous research and also present unique knowledge since the study included university students from different countries with a unique set of measured variables.
The findings provided support for the hypotheses since at both the group and individual level student perceptions of the perceived usefulness of the class content contributed to the explanation of student autonomy which, in turn, helped to explain student motivation to learn as a robust and generalizable relation.
To date, limited research has been conducted linking self-determination variables with instructor emphasis on class content usefulness. However, some studies have found a link between the content usefulness variable and intrinsic motivation in relation to students’ feelings of passion for the subject matter. Predictive models (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011; Ruiz-Alfonso & León, 2017) have also found a positive relation between these two variables, providing evidence that university students who perceive greater support for teacher autonomy manifest higher levels of harmonious passion than those who believed their teachers preferred a controlling teaching environment.
Several studies have also provided support for the expectation that student autonomy perceptions are related to intrinsic motivation and contribute to their subject matter engagement and academic achievement (Howard et al., 2021; Jang et al., 2010; Leon et al., 2017; Yoon et al., 2020). Our research provides support for the belief that teachers’ emphasis on the usefulness of class content will contribute to support for student autonomy and motivation to learn. Therefore, it is important that teachers use appropriate methodologies and pedagogical tools that allow students to better appreciate why they learn specific classroom content and link theory to practice in order to promote greater student engagement in their university learning experience. Explaining the usefulness of class content is a strategy to support student autonomy (Leon et al., 2017). It is also strongly recommended that teachers do not use controlling language and that they recognize students' individual differences and respect students’ feelings. In addition, instructors can provide opportunities for students to plan and prepare for classes in advance and to provide challenges and positive feedback to students (Guay, 2022).
Some studies in higher education explored the influence of Self- vs External-Regulation Behavior Theory on student behavior and related that factors such as feedback from instructors, grading systems, and academic policies, were found to impact students' study habits, engagement, and motivation (de la Fuente, Martínez-Vicente, et al., 2022; Guo, 2020). Understanding these theories can inform educators and policymakers in creating environments that promote student autonomy, motivation, and academic achievement.
This research did not find a difference in the pattern of relations among university students from different countries involved in this study. These findings highlight the need for additional to consider possible differences in pedagogical delivery and student motivation from an international perspective helping to draw new future directions (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). This study was not without its limitations, since it assessed only the psychological need of autonomy so it is proposed that additional research could be conducted to include the variables of competence and relatedness. We can also suggest that in future studies other variables can be used to evaluate the teacher's perception as well, on the variables that influence their classes, such as the perception of success during the class. The inclusion of other kinds of motivation (e.g., identified regulation; or modeling autonomous vs. controlled motivation), as well as perhaps additional teaching strategies, and other outcomes such as learning outcomes. It highlights the need for more studies that consider methodological differences and curricular training in higher education, since the countries have different characteristics for training in higher education.
Conclusion
In closing, we found that the student perceptions of the perceived usefulness of the course content contributed to the explanation of student autonomy which, in turn, helped to explain student motivation to learn as a robust and generalizable relation. These results are meaningful given the large and diverse sample of university students from various countries that were involved in this research and the international implications for these findings.
