Self-estimated intelligence

SEI is defined “as people's estimates of their own cognitive abilities on a standard IQ scale in comparison to the overall population” (^{Szymanowicz & Furnham, 2011}, p. 493). Diverse cross-cultural works of SEI have been conducted. For example, investigations have been conducted in Africa (Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Namibia, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe), North America (the United States), Asia (China, Hong Kong, Japan, Macao, Malaysia, Singapore, East Timor), Europe (Belgium, Germany, Portugal, United Kingdom), and Middle East (Egypt, Iran, Lebanon) ((^{Szymanowicz & Furnham, 2011}). Globally, these investigations have displayed both gender and cultural differences, but few interactions between the two (^{Furnham, 2001}).

Some of the most important investigation about SEI has been: gender differences in estimation of global intelligence and on specific self-estimates of intelligence (^{Byrd & Stacey, 1993}; ^{Szymanowicz & Furnham, 2013}); intergenerational differences in SEI (^{Swami, Furnham, & Kannan, 2006}; ^{Pérez, González, & Beltrán, 2010}; ^{Neto & Furnham, 2011}); cross-cultural differences in SEI (^{Furnham & Akande, 2004}; ^{Neto, Furnham, & Paz, 2007}; ^{Neto, Pinto, Mullet, & Furnham, 2015}); the relation between SEI and personality traits (^{Furnham, Zhang, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2006}; ^{Neto, Mullet, & Furnham, 2016}); and correlations between SEI and psychometrically measured IQ are positive and significant, but modest (^{Furnham, 2001}), suggesting that self-estimated intelligence may be impacted by other features (^{Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2006}).

Reversal motivational intelligences

Current work examines lay estimates of motivational intelligences within reversal theory (^{Apter, 2001}) which is “a dynamic view of human functioning” arguing that “metamotivational states, and the values that they represent, go in pairs of opposites, so that one type of change would involve switching between these opposites” (^{Giraudeau, Chasseigne, Apter, & Mullet, 2007}, p. 171). Apter's metamotivational theory has been applied to study phenomena, such as addictions, smoking, risk-taking, creativity (^{Apter, 2001}).

Giradeaux et al. (2007) examined the structural conception of intelligence using the motivational style of reversal theory. They demonstrated eight factors likely to be interpreted within this theory. For those scholars three factors have already been evidenced in Western research: negativistic (interest in ability to deal novelty), autic mastery (everyday competence), and conformist (verbal competence). Three other factors have also been evidenced in Eastern research: telic (intrapersonal intelligence), alloic mastery (intellectual self-promotion), and alloic sympathy (interpersonal intelligence). The two remaining factors - autic sympathy (positive evaluation of him/herself) and paratelic (ability to enjoy life) - were not yet marked within implicit intelligence.

The first work examining lay estimates of conceptions of motivational intelligences using this eight dimensional structure (^{Girardeau et al., 2007}) was conducted among adolescents attending secondary schools (^{Neto, Mullet, & Furnham, 2009}). That investigation examined the relationship between gender and self-estimation of lay views about intelligence for self and parents. The gender effect vanished when youths assessed their parents in agreement with previous results (^{Rammstedt & Rammsayer, 2000}). Furthermore, the greater participants assessed their own eight reverse motivational intelligences, the greater they assessed all reversal motivational intelligences of their parents. Recently, correlates (^{Neto et al., 2016}) and cross-cultural comparisons (^{Neto et al., in press}) of lay views on reversal motivational intelligences for self and others have been studied.

The present study

Current study extends extant research by investigating self, partner, and parental estimates of intelligence among Brazilian people. At the best of our knowledge no previous research has analysed SEI in Brazil, and this is the first research using reversal motivational intelligences in Latin America.

The first objective of this research is to analyse whether there are gender differences in global and reversal motivational intelligences. Past research showed that gender differences in global intelligence are minor (^{Colom et al., 2000}); however, men tend to estimate their global intelligence greater than women. Cross-cultural works documented that these gender differences are found in every continents (^{von Stumm et al., 2009}). For example, males displayed higher self-estimate of their global intelligence than females in Angola and East Timor (^{Neto, in press}).

Studies of SEI, such as those suggested by ^{Gardner (1999}) or ^{Sternberg (1997}) tended to show gender differences only in terms of mathematical/numerical and spatial intelligence (^{Szymanowicz & Furnham, 2011}). Men tended to evidence greater estimates in the two self-assessed intelligences than women. These consistent findings on gender differences have been termed a male hubris-female humility effect in SEI (^{Furnham, Fong, & Martin, 1999}). In the Portuguese cultural context, adolescents (^{Neto et al., 2009}) as well as adults (^{Neto et al., 2016}) showed gender differences in autic sympathy. Men assessed their autic sympathy intelligence higher than did women. Furthermore, adolescents showed sex differences in alloic sympathy. Girls rated themselves greater on alloic sympathy intelligence than boys.

Gender differences are not limited to self-estimate of intelligence. Gender differences have also been documented in estimates of intelligence of close others. For example, past investigation has shown that, on average, grandmothers, mothers, daughters, and sisters are estimated as less intelligent than their male counterparts (^{Byrd & Stacey, 1993}; ^{Furnham, 2001}; ^{Neto & Furnham, 2011}). However, gender differences in estimates seem to be more strongly endorsed for self than for others. Moreover, generational differences were found. Each generation believes to become more intelligent than the previous generation (the Flynn effect).

Another objective of this work is to analyse which reversal motivational intelligences are considered the strongest predictors of global intelligence, yielding insights into what lay people believe constitutes intelligence. Diverse works using self-estimates of Gardner multiple intelligences evidenced that mathematical, spatial and verbal intelligences were the best predictors of self-estimated global intelligence (e.g., ^{Furnham, 2001}). Conformist, negativistic, and autic mastery emerged as significant predictors of the global evaluation of intelligence for the self and their parents among Portuguese adolescents (^{Neto et al., 2009}) and for the self among Portuguese adults (^{Neto et al., 2016}).

Another objective of this work is to analyse the structure of the eight reversal motivational intelligences. Previous studies conducted in Angola, East Timor, and Portugal evidenced one factor (^{Neto et al., 2009}; 2016; ^{in press}). This finding is not in line with a great number of past studies which tend to evidence either two or three factors depending on which multiple intelligences were examined (e.g., ^{Furnham, 2004}).

Therefore, this research examines gender differences in self-estimated IQ and estimates of partners' and parents' IQ among Brazilian people. In light of past findings five hypotheses were tested:

Other analyses were planned, yet no specific hypotheses were advanced. In this line it was explored the relationship between IQ test beliefs and experience, and self-estimated intelligences. Past work has demonstrated that they are linked (^{Furnham, Rakow, & Mak, 2002}; ^{Furnham, 2005}).

Participants

The sample consisted of 174 students (96 females and 78 males) from Brasilia University, Brazil. The mean age of the Brazilian students was 24.88 years (SD = 4.45). All participants spoke Portuguese as their mother tongue. Participants were social sciences students.

Measures

Self-Estimated Intelligence. The questionnaire has already been designed (^{Neto et al., 2009}), grounded on past research in the domain (^{Furnham, 2001}; ^{Neto & Furnham, 2006}). A normal IQ distribution, described in detail, was presented to the respondents. Subsequently, respondents were shown a grid with nine rows and four columns. The first row was labelled “Overall Intelligence” and the remaining eight taken from ^{Girardeau et al.'s (2007)} list of reversal theory motivational intelligences (see Table 1). The columns were labelled “You”, “Your Partner”, “Your Father”, and “Your Mother”. Hence, each participant was requested to make 36 IQ estimates. A higher score on the estimates indicates a higher estimated intelligence.

Beliefs about intelligence. These consisted of 6 questions (see Table 5) used in diverse works in this domain (e. g., ^{Furnham, Rakow, & Mak, 2005}; ^{Neto, Ruiz, & Furnham, 2008}).

Procedure

The Portuguese version of the questionnaire was administered (^{Neto et al., 2009}). Participants answered the questionnaire in class groups of 12 to 20 at the university. After consent obtained, participants completed the questionnaire. There was a 100% response rate. Respondents were all appropriately debriefed.

Data analysis

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to provide whether there were significant gender differences in self-estimates of overall and reversal motivational intelligences. The same MANOVA was also performed for estimates of partner, paternal, and maternal intelligences.

T-tests (with Benferroni corrections) were conducted to analyse generational and self-partner differences in estimates of intelligence. Four multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the best predictors of overall intelligence estimates. Factor analysis (principal component) was conducted for the 8 ratings of the self to analyse the structure of reversal motivational intelligences. A series of chi-squares were performed on the six beliefs about intelligence to show whether there were gender differences.

Gender differences

Table 1 shows the estimated scores for men and women on all 36 estimates. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to provide whether there were significant gender differences in self-estimates of overall and reversal motivational intelligences. The MANOVA yielded a significant effect of gender, Wilks λ = .89 (F(9, 163) = 2.33, p < .05, η _p ² = .11), with men showing greater self-estimates than women on overall intelligence, (F(1, 173) = 4.60, p < .05, η _p ² = .03). By contrast, women provided higher self-estimates of alloic mastery, (F(1, 173) = 3.91, p < .05, η _p ² = .02), and alloic sympathy, (F(1, 173) = 7.31, p < .01, η _p ² = .04).

The same MANOVA was also performed for estimates of partner intelligence, but no significant effect of gender was observed, Wilks λ = .95 (F(9, 161) = .95, p > .05, η _p ² = .05). A MANOVA of estimates of paternal, Wilks λ = .92 (F(9, 161) = 1.57, p > .05, η _p ² = .08), and maternal intelligences, Wilks λ = .94 (F(9, 163) = 1.16, p > .05, η _p ² = .06), likewise displayed no significant effect of gender.

Generational and self-partner differences

Various t-tests (with Bonferroni corrections) were conducted to analyse generational and self-partner differences in estimates of intelligence. Results are shown in Table 2. In terms of self-partner ratings, respondents evaluated their partners as being more intelligent than themselves on overall, and conformist intelligences. In terms of parental ratings, respondents evaluated themselves as more intelligent than parents on paratelic, conformist, negativistic, autic mastery, autic sympathy, and alloic mastery intelligences. They also gave themselves higher scores than their mothers on overall and telic intelligences. They also gave themselves higher scores than their fathers on alloic sympathy intelligence. Finally, respondents gave their higher scores than their mothers on overall intelligence. Mothers were rated as more intelligent than their fathers on alloic sympathy intelligence.

Table 1. Gender differences in estimates of self, partner and parental intelligence. 

Table 2. Paired t-Tests Comparing Mean Overall Estimates of Self and Others. 

^*p < .05; ^**p < .01; ^***p < .001.

Reversal motivational intelligence predictors of overall intelligence

Next we examined which of the diverse reversal motivational intelligences were the strongest predictors of overall intelligence estimates. Four multiple regression analyses were conducted. The overall intelligence estimates for self, partner, father and mother were the criterion variables, and the Apter's eight reversal motivational intelligences were the predictor variables (see Table 3).

Self-estimates. The regression for self-estimates was significant, F(8, 172) = 9.42, p < .001, R² = .32, and paratelic (β = .20, t = 2.22), conformist (β = .16, t = 2.18), negativist (β = .16, t = 2.06), and alloic mastery (β = .20, t = 2.07) intelligences emerged as significant predictors.

Partner estimates. The regression for partner's estimates was also significant, F(8, 170) = 25.50, p < .001, R² = .56, and telic (β = .39, t = 5.57), paratelic (β = .15, t = 2.31), conformist (β = .26, t = 3.66), and negativistic (β = .16, t = 2.33) intelligences emerged as significant predictors.

Father estimates. The regression for paternal estimates was significant, F(8, 170) = 25.55, p < .001, R² = .53, and telic (β = .24, t = 3.23), conformist (β = .44, t = 6.06), and autic mastery (β = .20, t = 2.61) intelligences emerged as significant predictors.

Mother estimates. The regression for maternal estimates was also significant, F(8, 172) = 19.93, p < .001, R² = .49, and telic (β = .28, t = 3.67), and conformist (β = .42, t = 5.33) intelligences emerged as significant predictors.

Table 3. Regressions of the eight reversal multiple intelligences onto the overall estimate of intelligence. 

^*p < .05; ^**p < .01; ^***p < .001.

The structure of reversal motivational intelligences

Factor analysis (principal component) was conducted for the 8 ratings of the self. The results evidenced one factor with an eigenvalue above 1, accounting for 49.5 percent of the variance in the items (see Table 4).

Table 4. Factor analysis results. 

Note. SC = Structure coefficients

Beliefs about intelligence

The results for the six items on intelligence and intelligence testing are shown in Table 5. They indicated that 42% of the respondents had ever taken an IQ test and also 59% appeared to be suspicious concerning the validity of tests, They do not believe that, on average, men are more intelligent than women (15% did, but 85% did not). Around a quarter of the respondents thought that intelligence is primarily inherited. In all 58% of the sample thought that IQ tests are useful in educational settings. Fifteen percent of these respondents argued that some races are more intelligent than others.

Finally, a series of chi-squares were performed on the six questions. Across gender, the analyses displayed significant differences only on question three (a greater number of men believed that they are on average more intelligent than women, χ² (1) = 15.74, p < .001).

The six questions were regressed on the self-estimated overall g score, and the totalled 8. Both analyses showed no significance, (F(6, 164) = .51, p = .80), and (F(6, 163) = .96, p = .46), respectively.

Table 5. Beliefs about intelligence by sex (%).