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Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte

versión On-line ISSN 1989-5879versión impresa ISSN 1578-8423

CPD vol.21 no.3 Murcia sep./dic. 2021  Epub 23-Mayo-2022

 

Psicología del Deporte

Body image and well-being in dance practitioners: an exploratory study

Imagen corporal y bienestar en los practicantes de danza: un estudio exploratorio

Imagem corporal e bem-estar em praticantes de dança: um estudo exploratório

B Faria1  , R Frontini2  3  , R Antunes1  2  3 

1 ESECS, Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria Portugal.

2 CIEQV - Life Quality Research Centre, Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria Portugal

3 Center for Innovative Care and Health Technology (ciTechCare), Polytechnic of Leiria, Leiria Portugal

ABSTRACT

Literature has been concerned with the effect of dance practice on several variables, namely well-being and body image (BI). This study aimed to analyse the perception of dance practitioners on BI and subjective well-being (positive and negative affect and satisfaction with life), comparing adolescents and adults. A sample of 91 dancers (18.08±5.12 years) was recruited and divided into two groups (adolescents 11-17 years; adults 18-34 years). The group of adolescents presented a higher perception of satisfaction with life compared to adults (p=0.041; d=-0.44). Regarding the relationships between variables, when analysing separately each group, in the group of adolescents the positive affect is related to satisfaction with life (r=0.64; p≤0.001) and negative affect (r=-0.32; p=0.026), while the negative affect is related to the hours of weekly practice (r=0.46; p=0.001). In the group of adults, positive affect is related to satisfaction with life (r=0.36; p=0.017) and weekly hours of practice (r=0.39; p=0.010), while negative affect is related satisfaction with life (r=-0.45; p=0.003). With regard to (dis)satisfaction with BI, we found that, in the group of adolescents, it is related to the years of practice (r=0.33; p=0.023) and the weekly hours of practice (r=0.32; p=0.023), while in the adults' group, satisfaction with life (r=-0.42; p=0.005) and negative affect (r=0.59; p≤0.001) are related. Our results leave some indicators that should be explored in future studies, namely seeking to understand the factors that may be mediating the relationship between BI and well-being, as well as the effect of age on this relationship.

Keywords: body image; affect; satisfaction with life; dancers

RESUMEN

La literatura ha investigado el efecto de la práctica de la danza en variables como el bienestar y la imagen corporal (IC). El objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la percepción de la IC y el bienestar subjetivo, comparando adolescentes y adultos. Se utilizó una muestra de 91 bailarines (18,08±5,12 años), divididos en dos grupos (adolescentes de 11 a 17 años; adultos de 18 a 34 años). Los resultados indican que el grupo de adolescentes tiene una mayor percepción de la satisfacción de la vida (p=0,041; d=0,44). En el grupo de adolescentes, el afecto positivo está relacionado con la satisfacción con la vida (r=0,64; p≤0,001) y el afecto negativo (r=0,32; p=0,026), mientras que el afecto negativo está relacionado con las horas de práctica semanales (r=0,46; p≤0,001). En los adultos, el afecto positivo está relacionado con la satisfacción de la vida (r=0,36; p=0,017) y las horas de práctica semanales (r=0,39; p=0,010), mientras que el afecto negativo está relacionado con la satisfacción de la vida (r=0,45; p=0,003). En cuanto a la (in)satisfacción con la IC, en el grupo de adolescentes, esto está relacionado con los años de práctica (r=0,33; p=0,023) y las horas de práctica semanal (r=0,32; p=0,023). En el grupo de adultos, la satisfacción de la vida (r=0,42; p=0,05) y el afecto negativo (r=0,59; p≤0,001) están relacionados. Nuestros datos parecen dejar indicadores para explorar en el futuro, buscando una comprensión de los factores que pueden estar mediando la relación entre la IC y el bienestar.

Palabras clave: imagen corporal; afeto; satisfacción con la vida; bailarines

RESUMO

A literatura tem-se preocupado com o efeito da prática de dança em variáveis como o bem-estar e a imagem corporal (IC). O objetivo deste trabalho foi analisar a perceção de IC e de bem-estar subjetivo, comparando adolescentes e adultos. Recorreu-se a uma amostra de 91 dançarinos (18.08±5.12 anos), divididos em dois grupos (adolescentes 11-17 anos; adultos 18-34 anos). Os resultados indicam-nos que o grupo dos adolescentes apresenta uma perceção superior de satisfação com a vida comparativamente com os adultos (p=0.041; d=-0.44). Verificamos que no grupo dos adolescentes, o afeto positivo se relaciona com a satisfação com a vida (r=0.64; p≤0.001) e com o afeto negativo (r=-0.32; p=0.026), enquanto o afeto negativo se relaciona com as horas de prática semanal (r=0.46; p=0.001). Já nos adultos, o afeto positivo relaciona-se com a satisfação com a vida (r=0.36; p=0.017) e com as horas de prática semanal (r=0.39; p=0.010), enquanto o afeto negativo se relaciona com a satisfação com a vida (r=-0.45; p=0.003). No que se refere à (in)satisfação com a IC, no grupo dos adolescentes esta relaciona-se com os anos de prática (r=0.33; p=0.023) e as horas de prática semanal (r=0.32; p=0.023). No grupo dos adultos relaciona-se a satisfação com a vida (r=-0.42; p=0.005) e com o afeto negativo (r=0.59; p≤0.001). Os nossos dados parecem deixar indicadores a explorar no futuro, procurando a compreensão dos fatores que podem estar a mediar a relação entre a IC e o bem-estar, bem como, o efeito da idade nesta relação.

Palavras-chave: imagem corporal; afeto; satisfação com a vida; bailarinos

INTRODUCTION

Dance is a worldwide human activity that integrates the coordination of intentional body movements, performed in synchronization with rhythmical stimuli, and usually played together with other individuals (Liberali, 2013; Murcia et al., 2010), but who works on the subject's own body (Liberali, 2013).

Since early human history, healing potential effects have been attributed to dance activities (Murcia et al., 2010). Arts health is a domain concerned with promoting positive wellbeing and health outcomes through the engagement of various art forms, including dance (Sheppard & Broughton, 2020). The benefits of dance practice are presented by the literature, not only in its physical dimension (Haskell et al. 2007; Murcia et al., 2010) but also in the psychological dimension, as for example with regard to well-being (Sheppard & Broughton, 2020).

According to Diener (1995), well-being is a long-term state that is characterized by the presence of positive affect, the absence of negative affect, as well as a positive perception of life satisfaction. Diener & Chan (2011), claim that subjective well-being is a positive factor for people's health and longevity. Subjective well-being comprises, in its construct, two dimensions: an emotional dimension that relates to positive and negative affect, which represents the affection that each individual manifests, as well as the predominance of positive emotions over negative ones; and a cognitive dimension that concerns satisfaction with life, and that corresponds to the assessment that the subject makes at each moment of satisfaction with life (Galinha & Pais-Ribeiro 2005). Several studies had found an increase in life satisfaction in dance practitioners (Muro & Artero, 2017).

A study with a total of 475 (304 females, 171 males) non-professional dancers, with dance experience spread across several genres, found that in addition to emotional and physical benefits, participants reported dancing to have positive influences on self-esteem, social relations and spirituality as well as providing a significant coping strategy for daily stress and difficult times (Murcia et al., 2010). Another study examined the changes in anxiety in college students participating in dance classes during a period of three months and compared them with the effects of participating in a music group, a physical education group and a mathematics group. The authors found significant reductions in anxiety only in the dance group (Lesté & Rust, 1990). Thus, several studies have found positive benefits of dance. Moreover, it has also been found that the degree of perceived benefits of dance activities was related to the intensity of dance involvement (number of hours a month dedicated to dancing). Thus, individuals spending more time in dance activities are more likely to report greater positive benefits in different dimensions such as self-perception, body image and esteem (Murcia et al., 2010).

In addition to these variables, the literature has also shown concerns regarding the relationship between dance practice and satisfaction with body image (BI). BI regards the perception, thoughts and feelings we have about our body (Oliver, 2008), and is measured as the perceived discrepancy between the ideal and actual image, including size, shape, height or weight (Grogan, 2017).

Physical activity can help individuals achieve a better concept of self-concept and a better perception of body image (Fernández-Bustos, Infantes-Paniagua, Cuevas, & Contreras, 2019). A dancer's BI may not only concern the maintenance of a certain weight but also the possession of a body with a very specific appearance (Radell, 2012; Pickard, 2013). In a study that aimed to understand how practitioners of different modalities perceived their body image, it was found that satiation with the image was higher in dance practitioners when compared to other types of practices (individual and collective sports) (Marschin & Herbert, 2021).

In a study with 82 dancers, beginner dancers who practised ballet showed significantly greater body appreciation compared to advanced/professional ballet dancers and advanced dancers/contemporary professionals showed significantly greater body appreciation when compared to beginners (Swami & Harris, 2012). Moreover, the authors suggested that in advanced/professional ballet dancers the pressure to get excessively slim physiques leads to greater thinness, self-objectification and, consequently, more negative BI. Furthermore, some authors have mentioned that perfectionism and low self-esteem, are usually found among dancers, which might explain why eating disorders appear to be more prevalent among this group of people (Cardoso et al., 2017; Dantas et al., 2018). This is in line with research in the area finding that dancers have more than twice the risk of developing an eating disorder (Heiland, Murray, & Edley, 2008).

However, studies on the relationship between body image and the practice of modalities such as dance are still rare (Marschin & Herbert, 2021). Thus, considering the importance of understanding how dancers perceive their body image, but especially how it relates to their subjective well-being, this study aimed to characterize the perception of dance practitioners on BI and subjective well-being (positive and negative affect and satisfaction with life), including a comparison between teenagers and adults, In addition, the relationships between these variables and the practice of the dance (years of practice and hours of weekly practice) were analyzed.

METHODS

Study design and procedures

This is an empirical research (Ato, López, & Benavente, 2013) and a cross-sectional design conducted in Portugal. The questionnaires were filled out through the Google forms and included three domains: sociodemographic data, body image and subjective well-being (positive and negative affect and satisfaction with life).

Procedures followed standards for research in sports medicine and were performed according to the Declaration of Helsinki. Participants were fully informed about the nature of the study and the procedures involving data recording. Participants were voluntary, could withdraw from the study at any time and provided informed consent before the questionnaire's completion. Anonymity was guaranteed.

Participants

A sample of 91 Portuguese dancers (18.08 ± 5.11 years) was recruited and divided into two groups (adolescents 11-17 years; adults 18-34 years).

Dance practitioners danced different styles (from Ballet, Contemporary, Creative Dance, Character, Tap and Oriental Dances to Hip-Hop, Jazz, Capoeira Dance and Pop) with and without competitive practice, learning different Ballet methodologies. All participants are enrolled in dance schools.

Variables

Sociodemographic characterization:

Participants were required to self-report age, gender, years of practice, type of practice (with and without competitive practice); hours of weekly practice; dance style.

Body image:

To assess (dis)satisfaction with BI, the figure rating scale (FRS) was used (Stunkard, Sorenson, & Schulsinger, 1983). The scale presents schematic silhouettes of 9 males and 9 females ranging from extreme thinness to extreme obesity. Each participant self-reports the silhouette that best indicates his or her current body size and the silhouette that reflects his or her ideal body size. The (dis)satisfaction with body image was calculated according to the difference between the perceived image (i.e., the figure with the current body size) and the ideal image, varying between 1 (very dissatisfied) and 4 (totally satisfied).

Subjective well-being:

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988), in the short Portuguese version (Galinha et al., 2014) is constituted of 10 items, which are answered on a Likert-type scale with five levels ranging between 1 ("none or very slightly") and 5 ("extremely"). Afterwards, the items are grouped in two factors that represent the degree of positive affect (e.g., "interested", "strong", "enthusiastic") and negative affect (e.g., "perturbed", "scared", "angry"). Internal consistency in this study proved to be good (positive affect α=.82; negative affect α=.78).

The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985), in the Portuguese version (Neto, 1993), is constituted of 5 items, which are answered using a Likert-type scale with seven levels that vary between 1 ("chotally disagree") and 7 ("chotally agree"). Afterwards, the items are grouped into only one factor that presents an index of overall satisfaction with life (e.g., "My life is close to my ideal in many fields."). Internal consistency in this study proved to be good (α=.85).

Data Analysis

Counts (and proportions), means, standard deviations (sd) 95% confidence interval, (95% CI) and medians (interquartile range, IQR) were computed to describe both categorical and continuous variables for the total sample. Normality was checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test and by visual inspection of normality plots.

Independent samples t-tests for continuous variables were performed for Comparison analyses were performed to assess differences between groups (adolescents vs adults). To estimate the effect size, the procedure suggested by Fritz, Morris, P. E., & Richler (2012) was used for nonparametric tests: r=Z/√n. Interpretation of effect size was performed according to Rosnow & Rosenthal (1996): <0.2 (trivial); 0.2-0.6 (small); 0.6-1.2 (moderate); 1.2-2.0 (large); 2.0-4.0 (very large); > 4.0 (extremely large).

Pearson´s correlations coefficients were also used to determine the association between the selected variables. Data analysis was performed using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Science software for Windows (SPSS v.26.0, IBM Corp.; Armonk, NY, USA). The linear regression model was used to determine whether the years of practice and the number of hours of weekly practice (independent variables) predict (dis)satisfaction with body image (dependent variable), especially in the group in which the existence of correlations was found between the variables (adolescents). Confidence intervals were reported, according to the recommendations of (Williams & MacKinnon, 2008).

RESULTS

Table 1 presents a summary of the descriptive statistics of sociodemographic and study variables. Our sample has an average of 10.56 years of practice and an average of 12.90 hours of practice per week. Regarding satisfaction with life, the average of the sample is 25.45 (on a scale that would range from 5 to 35), while regarding the emotional dimension of subjective well-being, the values of positive affect are higher than those of negative affect. Finally, the (Dis)satisfaction with body image has an average value of 0.76.

The results indicate that the group of adolescents presented a higher perception of satisfaction with life compared to adults (see table 2). In the other variables, there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups.

Regarding the relationships between variables (see table 3), dissatisfaction with BI is related to negative affect, and negatively related to satisfaction with life and positive affect. Negative affect is related to hours of weekly practice and negatively related to satisfaction with life and positive affect.

Table 1.  Summary of descriptive statistics (n = 91). 

Table 2.  Comparison between groups (adolescents vs adults). 

When analysing separately each group, we found that in the group of adolescents, positive affect is related to satisfaction with life, and negatively related to negative affect, while the negative affect is related to the hours of weekly practice. In the adults' group, positive affect is related to satisfaction with life and weekly hours of practice, while negative affect is negatively related to satisfaction with life.

Table 3.  Relationships between variables 

With regards to (dis)satisfaction with body image, we found that in the group of adolescents (see table 4), it is related to the years of practice and the weekly hours of practice, while in the adults' group (see table 5), it is negatively related to satisfaction with life and negative affect are related.

Table 4.  Relationships between variables in adolescents' group (n = 48) 

Table 5.  Relationships between variables in adults' group (n = 43) 

Regarding the analysis of linear regression (see table 5), based on the correlations found in the group of adolescents, we found that the regressions are significant. Years of practice explained 9% of the variation in (dis)satisfaction with body image [0.009 -0.121] while the number of hours of weekly practice explained 8% [0.002-0.026]. There was also a lack of outliers.

Table 6.  Linear regression between years and hours of practice in adolescents' group (n = 48) 

DISCUSSION

The main aim of the present study was to analyse the perception of dance practitioners on BI and subjective well-being (positive and negative affect and satisfaction with life), comparing adolescents and adults.

The results indicate that the group of adolescents has a higher perception of satisfaction with life compared to the group of adults, a result that appears to contradict some evidence in the literature that indicates that satisfaction with life (a cognitive component of well-being) increases with age while the intensity of emotional experiences decreases over the years (Tungthongchai, 2011). However, previous studies contemplate adulthood in general, and not in the context of dance, which suggests that in practitioners this may happen differently. Thus, it is important to reinforce studies in this area.

With regard to the analysis of the relationships between the variables under study, we found that, in our sample, satisfaction with life is positively related to positive affect and negatively related to negative affect. These results are consistent with the existing conceptual framework as well as with a set of studies that related these concepts of subjective well-being, namely positive and negative affect and satisfaction with life (Tungthongchai, 2011). We also found that dissatisfaction with BI was related to negative affect and, conversely, to satisfaction with life and positive affect. These results seem to leave some indicators on the association between body image and two components of subjective well-being, still meeting what the literature has shown on this topic (Swami & Harris, 2012; Pop, 2017).

Completely, we also found that the negative affect had a relationship (although weak) with the hours of weekly practice, a result that contradicts some studies that identified a positive association between the amount of physical or sports activity and well-being (McMahon et al., 2017; Tungthongchai, 2011). However, this is a result that should be taken into account, as a warning sign, particularly for instructors/teachers who work with children and young people in this type of practice.

Finally, and when analysing separately in each group (adolescents and adults), we found that in the group of adolescents, positive affect is related to satisfaction with life and, conversely, with negative affect, while negative affect relates to weekly practice hours. Moreover, in the adult group, positive affect is related to life satisfaction and weekly practice hours, while negative affect is negatively related to satisfaction with life. Of these results, it is important to highlight the different role that hours of practice seem to have in each of the group. In fact, adolescents who have more weekly hours of dance practice present more negative affect. In contrast, in adults, those who have more weekly hours of dance practice have a more positive affect. These results seem to leave some indicators that should be explored, namely because it seems that the practice of these modalities is providing a set of positive emotional experiences to adults, something that does not happen in the same way with adolescents. A possible explanation may be the practice due to external pressures. It is possible that adolescents practice dance because of pressure from parents, family, or friends. Literature has found that adolescence is a specific developmental stage where the influence of others gains relevance (Welborn et al., 2015). It may be that parents need their children to be what they would have liked to be at that age. Young people may be fulfilling their parents' dreams instead of their own. Furthermore, it is possible that parents may pressure their children to practice a sport without considering the real reasons or without understanding if they are willing to practice or if this is the sport they want to practice. Another possible explanation is the pressure that some parents instil in their children to practice a modality that they started to practice, seeing the possible change to another practice as a failure. When pressing to continue dancing, parents will perhaps want their children to be better in their chosen modality, and not to practice a sport for pleasure or intrinsic motivations. Thus, it would be interesting for future studies to try to understand if this is the case or there are other possible explanations. Nowadays, we live in societies with high demand in terms of personal and professional life (Aggrawal, 2015). Thus, it is possible that adults that practice a particular sport, such as dance, have a positive relationship with it. This may explain the results of the present study relating hours of practice and positive affect. In adulthood, there is less dependence on parents and practitioners are less susceptible to external pressures and influences than at a younger age. Thus, they may feel more positive affect related to dance practice. Therefore, those who continue to practice will do so for the pleasure it gives and not for external pressures.

Another interesting result regards the relationship between BI and years and hours of practice. Only in adolescents, the dissatisfaction with BI is related to more years of practice (explain 9% of the variation in (dis)satisfaction with body image) and with more weekly practice time (explains 8% of the variation in (dis)satisfaction with body image), contradicting the results of several studies indicating that physical activity can help individuals to achieve a positive self-concept and promote psychological well-being in adolescents through the improvement of physical perceptions and body satisfaction (Fernández-Bustos et al., 2019). Thus, one possible explanation may be that the practitioners who have more time to practice are more concerned with bodily issues. These results are in line with other studies that show that physical exercise is positively related to self-reported health but has negative associations with body image for many adolescents (Dyremyhr et al., 2014). Also, higher levels of dissatisfaction with BI in dance practitioners (Ravaldi et al., 2003) and the BI is very important for dance practitioners (Radell, 2012). It is possible, therefore, that those who practice this sport for a longer time will also be concerned with other issues related to it. Thus, BI may be important to these practitioners. Furthermore, it is important to remember that previous studies have shown that dissatisfaction with BI is quite prevalent in adolescents (Pelegrini et al., 2014) and that adolescence is a period where issues with image gain bigger relevance (Diz, 2013). Therefore, the pressure associated with the sport may have a different effect that does not appear on adults. Another possible explanation may be due to the fact that many of the dance practitioners who have been practising dance for the longest time intend to follow this path in the long term. Therefore, they may be interested in reach the body they need to succeed in dance. However, it is important to note that some of the bodies needed for dance practice are very hard to reach (Koutedakis & Jamurtas, 2004) which may be related to more dissatisfaction with BI.

One other possible explanation may be due to the fact that the dance practitioners who have been practising dance for the longest time have a regular practice of many hours of dance like sports elite athletes´ and as some studies showed, the elite sport can be negatively related with body image causing disorders from food conduct and the influence sociocultural of thinness (Ceballos et al., 2019).

Regarding the relationship between well-being and dissatisfaction with BI, we found that in the group of adolescents, it is only related (in reverse) with positive affect, and the relationship is weak. In the adult group, however, there are moderate relationships between dissatisfaction with BI and satisfaction with life (reverse) and with negative affect. This result seems to leave us some indicators about the different role that BI seems to have in different stages of life, contributing differently to their perception of well-being when comparing the two groups. Thus, this study once more reinforces the importance of having a developmental perspective, both in research and in practice.

Therefore, this study seems to leave important indicators for dance teachers and schools to reflect on the role that the practice of these modalities can play, not only in the well-being of their practitioners but also in satisfaction with their BI. In addition, some indicators on the differences in perception (and in the relationship) between these variables seem to be strong, something that should lead professionals in this area to a differentiated intervention with adolescents and adults, since the practice seems to be providing experiences emotional in the opposite direction to each other.

It would be important that future studies consider the possibility of assessing these variables in a longitudinal perspective, as well as considering variables such as the type of instruction, leadership of the trainer/teacher or the use of mirrors in dance classes.

This study presents limitations that should be acknowledged: 1) sample size should be enlarged; 2) the convenience sample and 3) because of the cross-sectional design of the study, causal inferences are not possible.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that adolescents have a higher perception of satisfaction with life compared to adults. Adolescents who practice dance more often showed more negative emotional experiences, in contrast to adults with greater weekly practice. Regarding BI, our results revealed that there is a relationship between dissatisfaction with BI, years and hours of weekly practice, only teenagers.

With regard to the relationship between well-being and dissatisfaction with BI, dissatisfaction with BI is inversely related to positive affect, in adolescents while in adults there are moderate relationships between dissatisfaction with BI, satisfaction with life and negative affect.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

These results seem to leave some indicators that should be explored, by researchers and dance teachers, namely about the role that body image can play for younger practitioners (adolescents) and older (adults), as well as concerning the relationship of this variable with two components of subjective well-being. Understanding these factors is of crucial importance for the practice of this modality to promote the social and psychological benefits (e.g., in terms of well-being and satisfaction with body image), in practitioners of different age groups, trying whenever there is body acceptance.

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Received: February 05, 2021; Accepted: May 26, 2021

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