Sexting is defined as the sending, receiving, or forwarding of sexually explicit text messages, photographs, or videos, typically using electronic devices, where people can engage either actively or passively (^{Barrense-Dias et al., 2017}). Exchanging sexual content is not a new phenomenon, especially when it occurs through text messages. However, modern technological advances have led to a transformation in the frequency and manner of this behavior, creating the new term and construct of "sexting". The widespread use of smartphones and the internet has enabled and normalized the creation and dissemination of sexual content (^{Van Ouytsel et al., 2019}). This normalization can be observed in the sexting prevalence data which, although it may have stabilized in general in recent years (^{Mori et al., 2022}), can vary and depend greatly on the kind of practice assessed. In this sense, ^{Klettke et al. (2014)} conducted a systematic review involving samples of teenagers and young adults, revealing a prevalence of sexting ranging from 2.5% to 81% depending on the kind of sexting behavior. More recent meta-analyses, such as ^{Mori et al. (2020)}, found that prevalence among the different types of practices in emerging adults depends, in part, on the existence of consent. Consensually sexting behaviors had a higher mean prevalence, 38.3% for sending sexts, 41.5% for receiving sexts, and 47.7% for reciprocal sexts, while non-consensual sexting had a lower prevalence, 15% for forwarding sexts without consent and 7.6% for having sexts forwarded without consent. The divergence between the data of these studies could be due to methodological differences. For example, in the study by ^{Klettke et al. (2014)} they evaluate specific aspects of each practice, such as the format of the sext (e.g., photos, videos, texts, etc.), but not consent. In Spain, prevalence figures would range from 13.5% to 61%. Although studies conducted in this country show some discrepancies, they seem to indicate that the prevalence of sexting increases with age, that receiving sexts is more frequent than sending them, and that sexting is more frequent when it involves a romantic partner (^{Gámez-Guadix et al., 2015}, ²⁰¹⁷; ^{Gil-Llario et al., 2020a}, ²⁰²¹; ^{Molla-Esparza et al., 2021}). As in the studies mentioned above, the variability of these data would depend on factors such as the type of practice evaluated and others such as the sociodemographic and contextual characteristics of the sample and the methodology employed. In this regard, the scientific literature has identified key characteristics of people who are more likely to engage in sexting. These include being male, being an adult or late teenager, belonging to a sexual minority, being in a romantic relationship, or being part of a broken family, among others (^{Ballester-Arnal et al., 2017}; ^{Giménez-García et al., 2020}; ^{Klettke et al., 2014}; ^{Molla-Esparza et al., 2021}; ^{Mori et al., 2020}; ^{Rice et al., 2012}). Likewise, a clear example of how context can affect the prevalence of sexting could be observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The period of lockdown stemming from this global crisis temporarily reshaped interpersonal dynamics, leading to a notable increase in online sexual activity (^{Ballester-Arnal et al., 2023}, ²⁰²⁴; ^{Nebot-Garcia et al., 2023}). Methodological considerations show that, studies that use randomized sampling and those that assess respondents' active participation in sexting behaviors tend to report lower prevalence rates of sexting. However, these figures increase in studies that employ convenience sampling or use instruments that assess passive participation in sexting (^{Barrense-Dias et al., 2017}; ^{Klettke et al., 2014}). Also, participants' subjectivity could bias prevalence data, as there are interpersonal differences in the belief of what constitutes sexting behavior. For instance, some people do not consider sending sexual content through text messages to be sexting (^{Barrense-Dias et al., 2019}). It should be noted that sexting is a diverse and complex phenomenon. Its objective assessment is complicated by a lack of consensus within the scientific community and a limited societal understanding of its conceptualization.

Despite the discrepancies observed in the scientific literature on the conceptualization and prevalence of sexting, there does seem to be consensus on its consequences. Sexting can have both benefits and drawbacks for those who engage in it, but this largely depends on whether sexting is consensual or non-consensual. In general, consensual sexting has been associated with benefits such as improved sexual satisfaction, body image satisfaction, fun, sexual function, intimacy and trust in the romantic relationship, and emotional expression (^{Cooper et al., 2016}; ^{Hudson & Marshall, 2018}). However, non-consensual sexting has been shown to have a negative impact on the physical and mental health of those who have experienced it. In this regard, scientific literature identified in a systematic review several negative consequences arising from non-consensual sexting such as the use of sexts for ridicule, revenge, blackmail, or seeking peer approval, sexual victimization, as well as problems arising in professional, academic, or interpersonal settings, legal troubles stemming from the creation and distribution of non-consensual or underage pornography, and mental health problems including anxiety, depression, non-suicidal self-injuries (NSSI), and suicidal behavior (^{Cooper et al., 2016}; ^{Doyle et al., 2021}; ^{Wright & Wachs, 2024}).

Motivations and attitudes towards any behavior are explanatory factors of that behavior, and sexting is no exception. Therefore, understanding them can help shed light on this phenomenon. In this regard, the main motivations found by various researchers for engaging in this behavior were to enhance intimacy with a partner, satisfy a partner, explore one's sexuality, peer pressure, flirtation, cope with negative emotional states such as boredom, or simply because one wanted to do it (^{Gil-Llario et al., 2020a}, ^2020b; ^{Greer et al., 2022}; ^{Van Ouytsel et al., 2017}). Furthermore, favorable attitudes towards sexting promote the normalization of this kind of behavior and are positively correlated with both current sexting behavior and the intention to engage in sexting in the future (^{Klettke et al., 2014}). Studies such as the one conducted by ^{Gil-Llario et al. (2020a)} support these findings, suggesting that people who have engaged in sexting generally hold more favorable attitudes towards it compared to those who have not. Even within the group of people who are engaged in sexting, some authors have found that those who do it frequently and who share more explicit sexual content have more favorable attitudes (^{Champion & Pedersen, 2015}). Taking research in this field one step further, ^{Confalonieri et al. (2020)} used structural equation modeling to analyze a possible causal relationship between attitude towards sexting and sexting behaviors. The findings of these authors established a direct and negative causal relationship between negative attitudes towards sexting and the sending of sexts, both in text and multimedia image format.

The phenomenon of sexting advances hand in hand with technology and social media (^{Barrense-Dias et al., 2017}). It is in continuous evolution, changing rapidly and transforming the way people interact in their sexual relationships. Nevertheless, although recent meta-analytic studies such as ^{Mori et al. (2022)} analyzed the evolution of sexting behaviors in recent years, no study has been found that has evaluated this evolution in the motivational and attitudinal trends associated with sexting in Spain. Therefore, the main aim of this research was to analyze differences in the frequency of various kinds of sexting behavior, as well as motivations and attitudes towards sexting, among two groups of Spanish youth assessed at two different time points: one in 2017 (SG17) and the other in 2023 (SG23). With this objective in mind, the following hypothesis was formulated: SG23 will engage in a greater number of sexting behaviors, and will have more motivations and more favorable attitudes towards sexting compared to SG17.

Method

Results

Discussion

Behavioral, motivational, and attitudinal tendencies towards sexting of two groups of Spanish youth, assessed in two different periods with a six-year gap between assessments (2017-2023), were analyzed and compared in this study. These findings indicate an increase in the sexting behaviors of responding to sexts and posting sexual content on social networks. Likewise, an increase was observed in most of the motivations assessed for carrying out this type of practice and more favorable attitudes towards the use of sexting in the context of a romantic relationship were observed, as well as a lower perception of risk and a greater normalization of sexting.

When considering differences in sexting behavior between groups, it was observed that posting sexual images or text messages publicly on social media was more prevalent behavior in SG23. A plausible explanation for this phenomenon could be linked to the emergence of new social media platforms, which are employed to generate significant economic gains by creating and disseminating sexual content. An example of this is OnlyFans, which in 2018 introduced the option to share explicit sexual content among its features, and currently boasts over 240 million users worldwide (^{Fernández, 2024}). While it is true that publishing sexual content in exchange for economic benefit would not be considered sexting per se, it is a possible hypothesis that the rise of this type of platforms contributes to normalizing the publication of sexual content in other types of social networks, thus favoring this practice of sexting. Likewise, platforms such as Twitch or X Corp (formerly known as Twitter), among others, have adjusted their policies to allow the posting of sexual content (^{Hession, 2023}; ^{X Corp., 2024}). This may also have facilitated the increased use of these platforms to publicly share sexual content.

In terms of intergroup differences in sexting motivations, the SG23 reported higher frequencies in seven out of the 10 assessed motivations. These disparities could potentially be explained by findings from ^{Mori et al. (2020)}. According to their research, in recent years, there has been a globalization of smartphone use among adolescents and young adults, which has facilitated the practice and normalization of sexting. This could have increased and diversified motivations for engaging in this behavior. Moreover, it should be noted that between the assessment of one group and another, there was a period of lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which prompted the use of sexting as an alternative to maintain an active sexual life at a distance. ^{Ballester-Arnal et al. (2021)} and ^{Lehmiller et al. (2020)} found that during the lockdown period, there was an increase in online sexual behavior, which was integrated into the repertoire of sexual practices. Therefore, considering the arguments of ^{Mori et al. (2020)}, the use of sexting during the lockdown may have influenced a greater normalization of this type of behavior in SG23, thus explaining, at least in part, the presence of a wide variety of reasons for engaging in it.

Regarding attitudinal differences between groups, SG23 indicated having a more favorable attitude towards sexting within the context of romantic relationships, attitudes that denote a lower perception of risk, and less favorable attitudes towards sharing received photos/videos with their friends. These differences could again be due to the influence of the normalization of sexting. In the first case, according to ^{Bianchi et al. (2021)}, the COVID-19 lockdown would have favored the use of sexting with the aim of maintaining social and sexual relationships at a distance with romantic partners. Therefore, it is possible that SG23 group may have incorporated sexting into their usual repertoire of coupled sexual behavior, facilitating the development of a more favorable attitude towards sexting. In the second case, if we assume that the SG23 group has normalized sexting practices influenced by the pandemic and the evolution of social media towards the promotion of online erotic content, it seems plausible that people in this group may have more difficulty perceiving this behavior as potentially harmful. The relationship between normalization and risk perception has been observed in intimate partner violence. ^{Ruiz-Palomino et al. (2021)} indicated the existence of a negative relationship between the normalization of relationship violence and the perception of such behavior as injurious. Another potential explanation for these intergroup differences is that the normalization of sexting may have encouraged a sense of self-efficacy regarding the control and management of associated risks. In this regard, ^{Kang et al. (2024)} found a negative correlation between self-efficacy and risk perception, which ultimately could influence the adoption of preventive strategies for health care. Lastly, a potential hypothesis for the less favorable attitude towards sharing received sexts by SG23 could be that habituation to this type of content, because of repeated exposure, may have led to a decrease in interest and excitatory response to it. These stimuli may have lost their novelty and ceased to act as behavior reinforcers, a process previously described by ^{Abalo-Rodríguez et al. (2023)} in the context of exposure to sexual stimuli found in pornography. However, it is important to note that interpretations of the attitudinal differences found, while supported by scientific literature, are based on hypotheses that require further investigation in future research.

Our findings suggest that, in recent years, the number of motivations for sexting has increased, as well as the adoption of more favorable attitudes and a lower risk perception towards this practice among young Spaniards. According to the scientific literature, these aspects would have a relevant role in the sexual and mental health of people who practice sexting, and may cause harm, but also provide some benefits that should be further explored in the coming years. In this sense, one of the negative consequences would be linked to the increased motivation to practice sexting in conflictive situations or situations associated with negative emotional states, such as loneliness. Previous studies such as ^{Houck et al. (2014)} have already addressed this issue from the perspective of emotional regulation, finding that people who engage in sexting have more difficulties in identifying and managing emotions. Our findings indicate that, in recent years, the use of sexting as an emotional regulator in the presence of unpleasant situations or emotions has increased among young Spaniards. Other potential harms would come from the reduction in the perception of risk associated with sexting. Low risk perception could have a negative impact on the evaluation of possible risks derived from this practice, which would increase the vulnerability of those who practice it to potentially harmful experiences, such as sexual victimization, blackmail, harassment, etc. (^{Ahern & Mechling, 2013}). However, as mentioned succinctly, these findings also suggest the existence of potential positive consequences derived from sexting. In this sense, as mentioned by ^{Le et al. (2023)}, a greater openness towards these practices in the context of a romantic couple could favor the incorporation of new sexual experiences, thus enriching the diversity of interactions and improving both intimacy and the quality of the relationship. Also, in this context, sexting could favor long-distance relationships, as observed by ^{Bianchi et al. (2021)} during the COVID-19 lockdown. In this sense, even among migrants, sexting could be a way to promote the establishment and consolidation of interpersonal relationships at a distance. However, there is still little research on this subject, so it would be interesting to continue studying this phenomenon.

This research is not devoid of limitations, and therefore the data should be interpreted with caution. Some of the most notable limitations include the use of a non-probabilistic sampling method, a cross-sectional design, and the use of assessment instruments that do not contain control items. This would imply difficulties in generalizing the research results and the inability to establish causality between the study variables, in contrast to longitudinal studies. Additionally, another limitation encountered was the difference in various sociodemographic variables between the comparison groups. However, in this case, their potential influence was mitigated through regression analyses in which they were incorporated as covariates.

Despite the acknowledged limitations, we consider this exploratory study to be pioneering as it is the first conducted in Spain to analyze the evolution of sexting in recent years. It represents an initial step that invites future research aimed at studying the transformation of sexual relationships in the current context longitudinally, particularly at a historical moment when technology has changed the way people socially and sexually relate. Over a brief period, this study has identified several behavioral, motivational, and attitudinal shifts related to sexting. These changes highlight humanity's rapid adaptation to technological advances and emphasize the importance of continuous vigilance within the scientific community to prevent potential negative outcomes associated with emerging sexual trends. Likewise, this research observes how repetitive exposure to certain sexual content can result in its normalization, which decreases risk perception and increases vulnerability to experience harmful effects. In this regard, the introduction of sexual education programs tailored for adolescents would be beneficial, as adolescence is the developmental stage where engagement in such sexual practices begins. These programs should comprehensively address both the positive and negative aspects of sexting, along with other behaviors relevant to sexual contexts, promoting clarity and understanding among adolescents.